As the first to the State Food and Drug Administration
Center for Drug Evaluation, reporting a proposed review of the current vaccine, Beijing Sinovac Biotech Co., Ltd. (hereinafter referred to as Beijing Sinovac) development and production of influenza A H1N1 influenza split vaccine received 45 expert reviews. The experts of the vaccine safety, effectiveness and strict quality control review. After the scene to vote, to 43 experts will agree that the vaccine can be used for 3? 60-year-olds immunized. This marks the first of a flu vaccine in China by the expert review, will soon receive approval number. Rest of the world's vaccine production process, a sense of basic and China simultaneously.
It is reported that the review would be the largest one in history. 45 review experts from the vaccine, virology, immunology, epidemiology, statistics, vaccine quality control, respiratory medicine, geriatrics, pediatrics, gynecology, neurology and other 11 areas, with high authority and broad representation.
Previous expert review will be different, the expert review for the first time open to the media and the public, public representatives and 15 more than 20 journalists to attend review meetings. Reporter, as representatives of the media witnessed the vaccine through an expert review process.
Site to vote, the vaccine is safe and effective
"The effectiveness of the vaccine to meet internationally recognized evaluation criteria, see adverse reactions observed during the performance and incidence similar to seasonal influenza vaccine." Held today, the expert review meeting, the President, vaccine expert Zhao Armor Academy of Sciences will review the report first to open the August 30 to 31 experts in the review comments in the review form. He said experts believe the vaccine is safe and effective, can be 3? 60 years of age to immunize the population. At the same time remind the business, continue to observe the immune persistence and long-term stability of the vaccine, large-scale population immunity in enforcing risk management and pharmacovigilance plans.
It is reported that Beijing Sinovac has developed the basic conditions for a flu vaccine, approved by the State Food and Drug Administration organizations, development, production and clinical trial site inspection on-site inspection. General Manager of Beijing Branch Xing Wei-dong said the vaccine was from June 8 for the production of toxic species to August 31 by the review took only 85 days. Ministry of Health, State Food and Drug Administration and the Chinese Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) of the organization and coordination, the entire development, tight and efficient production process, but the vaccine production, testing and clinical trials of the procedure did not decrease further.
State Food and Drug Administration director of the Center for Drug Evaluation, said Li Guoqing, China's development and production of vaccine has been able in a relatively short period of time through the review, mainly due to the flu vaccine is a vaccine more mature, and our enterprises in the production of influenza vaccine has good foundation and strength. Currently there are 10 enterprises in China during a flu vaccine production, including Beijing Sinovac has six, including the request for review, drug review center is in accordance with the order to submit applications one by one expert review.
"Of course, inseparable from the Ministry of Health, Ministry of Industry, the State Food and Drug Administration and other government departments to actively promote." Academician Zhao Kai, this is our response to large-scale influenza vaccine and immune reserves accumulated experience.
Public participation, open and transparent review
"I signed up online to present my concerns and soon received an invitation to attend the review." From the Business School of Renmin University of China, Zhang said Professor Kay. He was concerned with three issues, namely, how the effectiveness of the vaccine? Second, what are side effects of vaccines? The third is what the crowd is not appropriate vaccine?
This, Zhao Kai Fellow in the review conference to explain that the current vaccine in mass immunization in the crowd yet, so no statistical validity rate, but the vaccine is based on a certain dose, certain procedures , according to the situation of antibodies obtained to infer the effectiveness of its current conclusion is that to meet internationally recognized evaluation criteria, that antibody is in line with the requirements, can play a protective effect against influenza.
For vaccine adverse events of public interest, epidemiologists Rongcheng that the current clinical trials adverse events seen in seasonal influenza vaccine use are ever occurred, and no new, serious, rare adverse reaction, based on this, experts determine the vaccine is safe.
Sincerely from Beijing Medical Technology Group Hai-Bo Wu also very concerned about what people should not be inoculated with the vaccine. Zhao Kai fellow told him, it is recommended to determine whether the actual situation of pregnant women vaccinated.
A lot of media attention
flu spread worldwide since what changes have taken place, showing how the trend, a new variation will occur. In this regard, from the Chinese CDC epidemiologists Professor Zeng Guang said that at present, the monitoring of a national sense of common susceptibility showed Xianchu, its ability to communicate than seasonal influenza, the severity of disease is also higher than the season influenza. "Can say with certainty that in the larger context of a flu pandemic is inevitable and will certainly come."
Wednesday, July 14, 2010
Deer breeding management experience and common diseases
Cultivation Based aquaculture expert advice Shelterbelt management experience and common deer breeding disease control methods are as follows for the general reference to study deer farming
1. Strengthen the feeding and management, ensure Feed , Water sanitation. Fed the crude wood and dung Mikie, daily clean up time.
2. The disease epidemic season (mainly summer) discounted Ventilator should be configured, for ventilation.
3. Deer house and sporting venue, the ground floor with brick or cement, but the brick floor is good, easy to clean, and polished.
4. Circle regularly disinfected once a month, half the incidence disinfected once per season
5. In the introduction of deer to strictly quarantine the same time do a good job in transportation management and cleaning.
6. Feeding, do not suddenly change the diet varieties, such as the change should be small to moderate gradually. Concentrated feed and green feed protein-rich fodder tender when not excessive.
7. Grazing time, to avoid low-lying wet land, dry and location should be chosen Gao grazing.
8. Vaccination, deer sudden death triple vaccine available, each 4 ml, mix intramuscular injection, once every six months with good results.
Deer breeding process treatment of common diseases and prevention
1, deer dystocia. [Treatment] to strengthen the scientific pregnant doe feeding and management. And create a more peaceful birth environment. Dystocia occurred, should be timely Midwifery.
2, deer and gastroenteritis gastrointestinal cards thing. [Therapy] NOTE feed, water sanitation, and feed the mutation. 5% glucose infusion, intravenous fluid in the inclusion of sulfonamides, methenamine, Ann, such as injection.
3, Ruminis bulging with acute rumen. [Therapy] stop feeding, but not limited to drinking water. To intravenous injection of sodium chloride. Acute rumen bulging; esophageal infarction, treatment is better is to use needle deflated.
4, TB. [Treatment] to strengthen health management deer feed on deer suffering from isolation disinfection. Neonatal Fawn, the deer breeding BCG. Already happened on the treatment of this disease of deer meaningful, appropriate early elimination.
5, Necrobacillosis. [Treatment] to maintain health circles, set foot bath, to be filled with 3% Su children, 10% copper sulfate solution, 3% potassium permanganate solution and so on.
6, brucellosis. [Treatment] on a regular basis and quarantine, disinfection, and the DOE on the delivery room must pay attention to handling secretions. Be inoculated Sheep Brucellosis 5 Vaccine .
7, pasteurellosis. [Therapy] cleaning and disinfection. Sulfa drug treatment services more better. Or service cardiac rehydration.
8, deer intestinal toxemia. [Therapy] on the risk of deer intravenous glucose, Nick kill meters, streptomycin, gentamicin, chloramphenicol, vitamin B, C.
9, deer rabies (nerve disease). [Therapy] treatment is no effective way. Prevention can be injected in the muscle with the rabies vaccine.
10, tetanus. [Treatment] against injury, and saw Velvet, carved ears, surgery, etc. must be strictly sterilized. Treatment, keeping the lap, quiet and dark light. Intramuscular injection of TT Su.
11, poisoning disease: [therapy] should first understand the disease situation, race against time, fed acid drugs; and by dilution, that intravenous injection of glucose solution, compound sodium chloride solution, etc.; for the removal of poison to service laxative, for the protection of gastrointestinal mucosa to serve Zhan Hu agents or adsorbents.
12, Fawn diarrhea. [Treatment] with oxytetracycline powder, milk enzyme Health, pepsin, vitamin, bismuth sub-nitrate taken orally.
13, Fawn umbilical cord inflammation. [Treatment] before penicillin, streptomycin intramuscularly, serving New Normington, topical diclofenac sodium water wash, then coated iodine or gentian violet. Such as umbilical necrosis, necrotic tissue and debris can be removed, sprinkle boric acid equivalent iodoform powder.
14, anal licking and biting the end of Fawn. [Treatment] to be licking Fawn Oral streptomycin can be tannic acid protein, mineral carbon silver, iodine and amine microphone.
15, fawn rickets [therapy]. To prevent this disease, should doe pregnancy, breast-feeding should be given to high-quality vitamin and more green feed. Deer house to dry, sunny, deer may be minor, and often driven Fawn group, increasing the amount of exercise Fawn. With calcium carbonate, bone meal or eggshell powder mixed feeding, clothing Fish Liver oil, intramuscularly Vidin calcium gel
Deer farming experts suggest there are risks, the development of Deer to market-oriented, moderate development; to the implementation of scientific breeding, to strengthen health prevention work to reduce mortality, achieve high yield, low cost, high quality and efficiency. Forestry sector proposals, farmers breeding the best to do market research before, understand the market demand, to the regular deer farm to buy, beware of buying the old deer, deer disease, regular field house inquiries can go to the official web site CCTV-7, agricultural Bo network reported net of Chinese deer industry had recommended a formal enterprises such as Beijing nine deer sika deer breeding center, Jingdong deer farm, 10,000 deer deer, deer industries that Beijing hopes to avoid unnecessary losses.
1. Strengthen the feeding and management, ensure Feed , Water sanitation. Fed the crude wood and dung Mikie, daily clean up time.
2. The disease epidemic season (mainly summer) discounted Ventilator should be configured, for ventilation.
3. Deer house and sporting venue, the ground floor with brick or cement, but the brick floor is good, easy to clean, and polished.
4. Circle regularly disinfected once a month, half the incidence disinfected once per season
5. In the introduction of deer to strictly quarantine the same time do a good job in transportation management and cleaning.
6. Feeding, do not suddenly change the diet varieties, such as the change should be small to moderate gradually. Concentrated feed and green feed protein-rich fodder tender when not excessive.
7. Grazing time, to avoid low-lying wet land, dry and location should be chosen Gao grazing.
8. Vaccination, deer sudden death triple vaccine available, each 4 ml, mix intramuscular injection, once every six months with good results.
Deer breeding process treatment of common diseases and prevention
1, deer dystocia. [Treatment] to strengthen the scientific pregnant doe feeding and management. And create a more peaceful birth environment. Dystocia occurred, should be timely Midwifery.
2, deer and gastroenteritis gastrointestinal cards thing. [Therapy] NOTE feed, water sanitation, and feed the mutation. 5% glucose infusion, intravenous fluid in the inclusion of sulfonamides, methenamine, Ann, such as injection.
3, Ruminis bulging with acute rumen. [Therapy] stop feeding, but not limited to drinking water. To intravenous injection of sodium chloride. Acute rumen bulging; esophageal infarction, treatment is better is to use needle deflated.
4, TB. [Treatment] to strengthen health management deer feed on deer suffering from isolation disinfection. Neonatal Fawn, the deer breeding BCG. Already happened on the treatment of this disease of deer meaningful, appropriate early elimination.
5, Necrobacillosis. [Treatment] to maintain health circles, set foot bath, to be filled with 3% Su children, 10% copper sulfate solution, 3% potassium permanganate solution and so on.
6, brucellosis. [Treatment] on a regular basis and quarantine, disinfection, and the DOE on the delivery room must pay attention to handling secretions. Be inoculated Sheep Brucellosis 5 Vaccine .
7, pasteurellosis. [Therapy] cleaning and disinfection. Sulfa drug treatment services more better. Or service cardiac rehydration.
8, deer intestinal toxemia. [Therapy] on the risk of deer intravenous glucose, Nick kill meters, streptomycin, gentamicin, chloramphenicol, vitamin B, C.
9, deer rabies (nerve disease). [Therapy] treatment is no effective way. Prevention can be injected in the muscle with the rabies vaccine.
10, tetanus. [Treatment] against injury, and saw Velvet, carved ears, surgery, etc. must be strictly sterilized. Treatment, keeping the lap, quiet and dark light. Intramuscular injection of TT Su.
11, poisoning disease: [therapy] should first understand the disease situation, race against time, fed acid drugs; and by dilution, that intravenous injection of glucose solution, compound sodium chloride solution, etc.; for the removal of poison to service laxative, for the protection of gastrointestinal mucosa to serve Zhan Hu agents or adsorbents.
12, Fawn diarrhea. [Treatment] with oxytetracycline powder, milk enzyme Health, pepsin, vitamin, bismuth sub-nitrate taken orally.
13, Fawn umbilical cord inflammation. [Treatment] before penicillin, streptomycin intramuscularly, serving New Normington, topical diclofenac sodium water wash, then coated iodine or gentian violet. Such as umbilical necrosis, necrotic tissue and debris can be removed, sprinkle boric acid equivalent iodoform powder.
14, anal licking and biting the end of Fawn. [Treatment] to be licking Fawn Oral streptomycin can be tannic acid protein, mineral carbon silver, iodine and amine microphone.
15, fawn rickets [therapy]. To prevent this disease, should doe pregnancy, breast-feeding should be given to high-quality vitamin and more green feed. Deer house to dry, sunny, deer may be minor, and often driven Fawn group, increasing the amount of exercise Fawn. With calcium carbonate, bone meal or eggshell powder mixed feeding, clothing Fish Liver oil, intramuscularly Vidin calcium gel
Deer farming experts suggest there are risks, the development of Deer to market-oriented, moderate development; to the implementation of scientific breeding, to strengthen health prevention work to reduce mortality, achieve high yield, low cost, high quality and efficiency. Forestry sector proposals, farmers breeding the best to do market research before, understand the market demand, to the regular deer farm to buy, beware of buying the old deer, deer disease, regular field house inquiries can go to the official web site CCTV-7, agricultural Bo network reported net of Chinese deer industry had recommended a formal enterprises such as Beijing nine deer sika deer breeding center, Jingdong deer farm, 10,000 deer deer, deer industries that Beijing hopes to avoid unnecessary losses.
Antibiotic-free quality shrimp and prawn farming
The $200 million first phase resulted in eleven farms and 2,800 hectares of ponds with projected production of 13,500 metric tons of whole shrimp a year. Phase two will add fifteen more farms and 3,500 more hectares of ponds capable of producing 17,500 tons a year.
National Prawn Company follows the codes of conduct and methods of production outlined under the United Nation's definition of "Sustainable Development". It produces antibiotic-free shrimp with no hormones and no preservatives using eco-friendly, sustainable shrimp farming methods. It uses low stocking densities and settling ponds to protect the local aquatic ecosystem.
NPC's product line is currently marketed locally and internationally under the brand name "Al-Watania" and other brand names.
Work Force: More than 2,000 employees from 25 countries.
Broodstock: Specific pathogen-free, specific pathogen-resistant Penaeus indicus in its twenty-fourth generation.
Nauplii Production: 60 million a day.
Postlarvae Production: 180 million a cycle.
Processing Plant: Capable of handling 80 metric tons of head-on shrimp a day. M/S Marel/Carnitech (Denmark) supplied and installed most of the processing equipment. M/S Jonsson (USA) supplied the peeling machines and Mycon (Japan) supplied the refrigeration system. The plant is designed to process a wide variety of products from simple block frozen products to high-value ready to eat individually quick frozen and cooked products.
The shrimp reach the plant in less than an hour after harvest and are processed and packed in less than six hours after harvest. The plant has a large, fully automated chill room that can hold up to 25 tons of whole shrimp as it comes in from the farms.
There are three major processing lines, a head-on line with the capacity to handle two tons an hour, a headless line with the capacity to handle 1.2 tons an hour, and a peeling line with the capacity to handle one ton of raw shrimp an hour. Three plate freezers can freeze 20 tons of shrimp a day, and two spiral freezers can freeze three tons per hour. There are two flow pack machines from Sandiacre. As part of the worldwide marketing strategy, great importance has been given to the implementation of HACCP and ISO quality control systems.
Feed Mill: Capacity ten tons per hour. BUHLER (Switzerland) installed the machinery and technology.
Intake Pumping Station: The intake pump station was designed to create a flow of 90 cu/m/sec at a static head of 2.5 meters. It is equipped with twelve Amacan submersible, vertical pumps. The length of the intake canal is 35 kilometers!
Drain Pumping Station: The return water pump station is designed for a flow rate of 90 cu/m/sec at a static head of 1.1 meters. It is equipped with seventeen Amaline submersible, horizontal pumps. The total length of the return water canal is 38.2 kilometers.
Shrimp Head Powder: The offal plant processes fresh shrimp heads into shrimp head powder, which NPC sells as a feed ingredient in laminated, polypropylene bags weighing either 25 or 50 kilograms.
Miles of Roads on the Farm: 157 kilometers, 57 of them asphalted.
Employee Community: Furnished bachelor accommodations are provided with dining halls, relaxation facilities, indoor sports facilities, supermarkets and a mosque. Essential utilities like power, water and sanitation are available around the clock.
Distribution: NPC has entered into exclusive agreements with distributors in U.S.A, Canada, Spain, Cyprus, Italy, Australia, Japan, China, UAE, Korea, Egypt, Bahrain, and Jordan. It is looking for distributors in Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Lebanon, and Tunisia.
Employment: NPC is on course to implement its second phase and will be hiring people at all levels.
National Prawn Company follows the codes of conduct and methods of production outlined under the United Nation's definition of "Sustainable Development". It produces antibiotic-free shrimp with no hormones and no preservatives using eco-friendly, sustainable shrimp farming methods. It uses low stocking densities and settling ponds to protect the local aquatic ecosystem.
NPC's product line is currently marketed locally and internationally under the brand name "Al-Watania" and other brand names.
Work Force: More than 2,000 employees from 25 countries.
Broodstock: Specific pathogen-free, specific pathogen-resistant Penaeus indicus in its twenty-fourth generation.
Nauplii Production: 60 million a day.
Postlarvae Production: 180 million a cycle.
Processing Plant: Capable of handling 80 metric tons of head-on shrimp a day. M/S Marel/Carnitech (Denmark) supplied and installed most of the processing equipment. M/S Jonsson (USA) supplied the peeling machines and Mycon (Japan) supplied the refrigeration system. The plant is designed to process a wide variety of products from simple block frozen products to high-value ready to eat individually quick frozen and cooked products.
The shrimp reach the plant in less than an hour after harvest and are processed and packed in less than six hours after harvest. The plant has a large, fully automated chill room that can hold up to 25 tons of whole shrimp as it comes in from the farms.
There are three major processing lines, a head-on line with the capacity to handle two tons an hour, a headless line with the capacity to handle 1.2 tons an hour, and a peeling line with the capacity to handle one ton of raw shrimp an hour. Three plate freezers can freeze 20 tons of shrimp a day, and two spiral freezers can freeze three tons per hour. There are two flow pack machines from Sandiacre. As part of the worldwide marketing strategy, great importance has been given to the implementation of HACCP and ISO quality control systems.
Feed Mill: Capacity ten tons per hour. BUHLER (Switzerland) installed the machinery and technology.
Intake Pumping Station: The intake pump station was designed to create a flow of 90 cu/m/sec at a static head of 2.5 meters. It is equipped with twelve Amacan submersible, vertical pumps. The length of the intake canal is 35 kilometers!
Drain Pumping Station: The return water pump station is designed for a flow rate of 90 cu/m/sec at a static head of 1.1 meters. It is equipped with seventeen Amaline submersible, horizontal pumps. The total length of the return water canal is 38.2 kilometers.
Shrimp Head Powder: The offal plant processes fresh shrimp heads into shrimp head powder, which NPC sells as a feed ingredient in laminated, polypropylene bags weighing either 25 or 50 kilograms.
Miles of Roads on the Farm: 157 kilometers, 57 of them asphalted.
Employee Community: Furnished bachelor accommodations are provided with dining halls, relaxation facilities, indoor sports facilities, supermarkets and a mosque. Essential utilities like power, water and sanitation are available around the clock.
Distribution: NPC has entered into exclusive agreements with distributors in U.S.A, Canada, Spain, Cyprus, Italy, Australia, Japan, China, UAE, Korea, Egypt, Bahrain, and Jordan. It is looking for distributors in Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Lebanon, and Tunisia.
Employment: NPC is on course to implement its second phase and will be hiring people at all levels.
Clever way to control calves - Skillfully control calves - Aquaculture industry
Clean pig bed, calf care should be plenty of sunshine, water flow, well-ventilated, Dongnuanxialiang, avoid the cold wet dirt. Calf was born, immediately moved to the delivery room care movable conservation field, field size is usually 1 cubic meter to 2 cubic meters, up 1 per column, the general feeding for 10 days to 15 days, after the room to produce calves homes for centralized management. Calf bar should wash clean, kept clean, often for bedding, regular disinfection. Breast-feeding after birth of calf health
2 weeks to 3 weeks to use breast-feeding devices, 4 weeks after switching to milk bucket. Breast-feeding equipment should be promptly cleaned after each use clean, properly placed, regularly disinfected. Nursed him after the calves with a clean towel to wipe the milk around the mouth, to prevent chaos licking each other, to develop a "licking addiction." "Licking addiction" great harm, often to cause orchitis calf, papillitis, and umbilical cord inflammation embolism, such cribbing of cattle, is easily mistaken pharyngeal foreign body, commonly the lick ox hair, many years of formation in the rumen flat round hair bulb, sizes, resulting in blocking the esophagus or pylorus ditch and died.
Enough drinking water for the calf after birth, lack of drinking water if the cows, their milk can not meet the normal metabolic needs of calves. Therefore, the calf was born to give an adequate supply of clean drinking water cow. Beware of the cow giving birth asphyxia if
, calf mucus and amniotic fluid in the mother's long internal blockage choking symptoms appear. Mild asphyxia, the calf breathing shallow and rapid, time longer, can be found hanging extraoral tongue, nose and mouth filled with amniotic fluid and mucus, fast and weak heartbeat and pulse, there is only the corneal reflex; severe asphyxia, the calf breathing stop, soft body, only to hear heartbeat but not touch the pulse was false Sizhuang.
Control methods: 1. Resuscitation, the lower calf head, hindquarters elevated, by a person holding the two front legs, pulling back and forth alternating expansion and oppression, chest, another wipe their nose and mouth with gauze within mucus and amniotic fluid, to the calf to the normal breathing to stop. 2. Carrying out artificial respiration at the same time, stimulate the respiratory center can be used in conjunction with the drug.
Eliminate constipation calf constipation usually within 24 hours of calves born do not defecation, but continued Arch, tail-like to do defecation, severe abdominal pain, loss of appetite, rapid and weak pulse, rectal examination can touch the dry hard fecal material.
Control methods: 1. Fomentation and massage the abdomen, or with a large warm towel wrap to reduce calf calf abdominal pain. 2. With soap and water enema to soften the stool to discharge. 3. To rectal infusion 300 ml vegetable oil or paraffin oil.
Fully exercise more exercise can enhance the physical calf, calf lively, and not because of fear of calves run around and limit its movement, should ensure that adequate physical activity, not less than 4 hours a day. Winter can arrive 10 days after birth, playground, inclement weather to drive into the laying house, to prevent a cold. Warm autumn weather in the spring and summer, 3 days after birth to 5 days, can be rushed to the stadium, summer at noon to rush into the arbor, or discounted, to prevent heat stroke.
Daily brushed brushed test 1 day to 2 times. Massage can play the role of calf skin, can promote breathing and blood circulation, enhance metabolism, can prevent the occurrence of skin parasites and breeding, calf develop the habit of good accessible people.
Health care should always pay attention to observe the calf's appetite, spirit, stool is normal. Cleaning barn, we should pay attention to whether the calf stool loose stools, soft it, whether there is foul fecal smell and abnormal. Suffering from diarrhea of the calf tail and around the anus and more adhesive stool, showing abnormal calf to measure body temperature, if the body temperature above 39 should be treated in time.
2 weeks to 3 weeks to use breast-feeding devices, 4 weeks after switching to milk bucket. Breast-feeding equipment should be promptly cleaned after each use clean, properly placed, regularly disinfected. Nursed him after the calves with a clean towel to wipe the milk around the mouth, to prevent chaos licking each other, to develop a "licking addiction." "Licking addiction" great harm, often to cause orchitis calf, papillitis, and umbilical cord inflammation embolism, such cribbing of cattle, is easily mistaken pharyngeal foreign body, commonly the lick ox hair, many years of formation in the rumen flat round hair bulb, sizes, resulting in blocking the esophagus or pylorus ditch and died.
Enough drinking water for the calf after birth, lack of drinking water if the cows, their milk can not meet the normal metabolic needs of calves. Therefore, the calf was born to give an adequate supply of clean drinking water cow. Beware of the cow giving birth asphyxia if
, calf mucus and amniotic fluid in the mother's long internal blockage choking symptoms appear. Mild asphyxia, the calf breathing shallow and rapid, time longer, can be found hanging extraoral tongue, nose and mouth filled with amniotic fluid and mucus, fast and weak heartbeat and pulse, there is only the corneal reflex; severe asphyxia, the calf breathing stop, soft body, only to hear heartbeat but not touch the pulse was false Sizhuang.
Control methods: 1. Resuscitation, the lower calf head, hindquarters elevated, by a person holding the two front legs, pulling back and forth alternating expansion and oppression, chest, another wipe their nose and mouth with gauze within mucus and amniotic fluid, to the calf to the normal breathing to stop. 2. Carrying out artificial respiration at the same time, stimulate the respiratory center can be used in conjunction with the drug.
Eliminate constipation calf constipation usually within 24 hours of calves born do not defecation, but continued Arch, tail-like to do defecation, severe abdominal pain, loss of appetite, rapid and weak pulse, rectal examination can touch the dry hard fecal material.
Control methods: 1. Fomentation and massage the abdomen, or with a large warm towel wrap to reduce calf calf abdominal pain. 2. With soap and water enema to soften the stool to discharge. 3. To rectal infusion 300 ml vegetable oil or paraffin oil.
Fully exercise more exercise can enhance the physical calf, calf lively, and not because of fear of calves run around and limit its movement, should ensure that adequate physical activity, not less than 4 hours a day. Winter can arrive 10 days after birth, playground, inclement weather to drive into the laying house, to prevent a cold. Warm autumn weather in the spring and summer, 3 days after birth to 5 days, can be rushed to the stadium, summer at noon to rush into the arbor, or discounted, to prevent heat stroke.
Daily brushed brushed test 1 day to 2 times. Massage can play the role of calf skin, can promote breathing and blood circulation, enhance metabolism, can prevent the occurrence of skin parasites and breeding, calf develop the habit of good accessible people.
Health care should always pay attention to observe the calf's appetite, spirit, stool is normal. Cleaning barn, we should pay attention to whether the calf stool loose stools, soft it, whether there is foul fecal smell and abnormal. Suffering from diarrhea of the calf tail and around the anus and more adhesive stool, showing abnormal calf to measure body temperature, if the body temperature above 39 should be treated in time.
The prevention of chicken disease
Ascites syndrome in young broilers are gathered from the belly of a large number of slurry a syndrome characterized primarily against more than 4 weeks old chickens, the first 3 weeks of age occurred in chickens, the disease is the rapid growth of broilers One of ordinary disease. Young chickens because it can cause up to 35% of the mortality rate directly affects the chicken's economic benefits, it must draw close attention of broiler breeders.
1, the main symptoms: depressed chickens spirit, her head were drowsiness, single corner, disheveled feathers, slow response, ataxia, loss of appetite, desire to drink slightly increased, mild breathing difficulties, chest and abdomen appear edema, can be felt by touching a large number of intra-abdominal fluid.
Two pathological change: a large number of thoracic and abdominal gather the clearest transparent liquid. Cardiac hypertrophy, pericardial thickening, pericardial fluid increased size transparent, soft heart, relaxation, atrial expansion, particularly in the right atrium increased significantly; liver damage, hardening, thickening of hepatic lobe edge; kidney congestive swelling, and a urate deposition; gastrointestinal vascular congestion.
Three causes of morbidity: the disease has still not very clear incentives, and tendentious view that the chicken fast-growing requirements of the oxygen excess can not be timely and sufficient supply of oxygen due. Specifically include the following:
sheds through poor ventilation. Coop memory in a lot of ammonia, when the chicken after ammonia inhalation, the respiratory mucus secretion and airway wall thickening reduces the oxygen into the bloodstream.
stocking density is too large. Space for individual units have reduced intake of oxygen also decreased, carbon dioxide intake is relatively increased.
fed high energy feed. Rapid growth, the role of red blood cells carrying oxygen and nutrients to enhance delivery, oxygen consumption increased, leading to chronic hypoxia. Especially those fed with pellet feed more evident.
4, control measures: Ascites syndrome, Early symptoms of the general, to produce ascites course when it is late, treatment difficulties, they should prevent the main, mainly to improve the breeding environment, scientific management, scientific formula taken into consideration.
improve the breeding environment. In ensuring the chicken coop under the conditions of suitable temperature, to enhance ventilation to remove harmful gases discounted the harm, to ensure sufficient fresh air to be discounted. With the growth of age, ventilation volume will also increase, particularly late in the breeding, but should increase ventilation to meet the body's oxygen needs. Stocking density depends on the size of the chicken house ventilation to prevent the limited space for internal stocking density caused by the pursuit of lack of oxygen. Sheds in the farm to maintain the appropriate temperature, humidity easily damp bedding, damp bedding in the manure will have a lot of ammonia in the fermentation.
scientifically formulated diet. Reduce the dietary nutrient levels, broilers were fed in 3 weeks before the feeding of low-energy diet or high-energy limit, after 3 weeks of age to high-energy diet, may reduce morbidity. Dietary amino acid balance in ensuring appropriate while reducing appetite for protein. Lack of feed selenium, vitamin E or P will lead to ascites when, so the selenium content in the broiler feed should not fall below 0.12 mg / kg, vitamin E should also be appropriately increased Feeding Amount. Because the metabolism of selenium and vitamin E can produce toxic substances in the process of degradation, to prevent the destruction of peroxide on the cell membrane, the protection function of cell membrane integrity, maintain the cell's permeability, thereby reducing the incidence of ascites. Control the content of dietary fat, dietary fat content should be maintained at 6 weeks before the 1%, 7 weeks old when slaughter no more than 2%. Using powder instead of granules, powders used in broiler diets instead of granules, after reducing the incidence of ascites syndrome, particularly in low-lying areas, it is best to use powder for broiler chickens. Add a urease inhibitor, in the diet of additional 0.125% of hydroquinone, can gut ammonia concentration and urease activity decreased, thereby reducing mortality.
timely treatment of patients chickens. The chickens isolated chickens each oral Hydrochlorothiazide 6 mg, 2 times a day; in the new education per kg of chicken feed in the feed by adding the amount of 100 mg vitamin C, 3. The chickens can be severe ascites paracentesis, abdominal puncture site select the lowest point, in order to discharge fluid (liquid can not put too much time in order to avoid collapse), to prevent continued infection can also use antibiotics. Case of the disease in chickens as soon as possible to eliminate the cause.
1, the main symptoms: depressed chickens spirit, her head were drowsiness, single corner, disheveled feathers, slow response, ataxia, loss of appetite, desire to drink slightly increased, mild breathing difficulties, chest and abdomen appear edema, can be felt by touching a large number of intra-abdominal fluid.
Two pathological change: a large number of thoracic and abdominal gather the clearest transparent liquid. Cardiac hypertrophy, pericardial thickening, pericardial fluid increased size transparent, soft heart, relaxation, atrial expansion, particularly in the right atrium increased significantly; liver damage, hardening, thickening of hepatic lobe edge; kidney congestive swelling, and a urate deposition; gastrointestinal vascular congestion.
Three causes of morbidity: the disease has still not very clear incentives, and tendentious view that the chicken fast-growing requirements of the oxygen excess can not be timely and sufficient supply of oxygen due. Specifically include the following:
sheds through poor ventilation. Coop memory in a lot of ammonia, when the chicken after ammonia inhalation, the respiratory mucus secretion and airway wall thickening reduces the oxygen into the bloodstream.
stocking density is too large. Space for individual units have reduced intake of oxygen also decreased, carbon dioxide intake is relatively increased.
fed high energy feed. Rapid growth, the role of red blood cells carrying oxygen and nutrients to enhance delivery, oxygen consumption increased, leading to chronic hypoxia. Especially those fed with pellet feed more evident.
4, control measures: Ascites syndrome, Early symptoms of the general, to produce ascites course when it is late, treatment difficulties, they should prevent the main, mainly to improve the breeding environment, scientific management, scientific formula taken into consideration.
improve the breeding environment. In ensuring the chicken coop under the conditions of suitable temperature, to enhance ventilation to remove harmful gases discounted the harm, to ensure sufficient fresh air to be discounted. With the growth of age, ventilation volume will also increase, particularly late in the breeding, but should increase ventilation to meet the body's oxygen needs. Stocking density depends on the size of the chicken house ventilation to prevent the limited space for internal stocking density caused by the pursuit of lack of oxygen. Sheds in the farm to maintain the appropriate temperature, humidity easily damp bedding, damp bedding in the manure will have a lot of ammonia in the fermentation.
scientifically formulated diet. Reduce the dietary nutrient levels, broilers were fed in 3 weeks before the feeding of low-energy diet or high-energy limit, after 3 weeks of age to high-energy diet, may reduce morbidity. Dietary amino acid balance in ensuring appropriate while reducing appetite for protein. Lack of feed selenium, vitamin E or P will lead to ascites when, so the selenium content in the broiler feed should not fall below 0.12 mg / kg, vitamin E should also be appropriately increased Feeding Amount. Because the metabolism of selenium and vitamin E can produce toxic substances in the process of degradation, to prevent the destruction of peroxide on the cell membrane, the protection function of cell membrane integrity, maintain the cell's permeability, thereby reducing the incidence of ascites. Control the content of dietary fat, dietary fat content should be maintained at 6 weeks before the 1%, 7 weeks old when slaughter no more than 2%. Using powder instead of granules, powders used in broiler diets instead of granules, after reducing the incidence of ascites syndrome, particularly in low-lying areas, it is best to use powder for broiler chickens. Add a urease inhibitor, in the diet of additional 0.125% of hydroquinone, can gut ammonia concentration and urease activity decreased, thereby reducing mortality.
timely treatment of patients chickens. The chickens isolated chickens each oral Hydrochlorothiazide 6 mg, 2 times a day; in the new education per kg of chicken feed in the feed by adding the amount of 100 mg vitamin C, 3. The chickens can be severe ascites paracentesis, abdominal puncture site select the lowest point, in order to discharge fluid (liquid can not put too much time in order to avoid collapse), to prevent continued infection can also use antibiotics. Case of the disease in chickens as soon as possible to eliminate the cause.
Investing in Aquaculture
In many poor countries, these depend on a productive, competitive, and sustainable agricultural sector. To achieve these conditions, countries must invest in rural areas to strengthen agriculture, aquaculture, the food system, and infrastructure, and to restore and conserve critical natural resources for agricultural production. This requires both public and private investment -- domestic and foreign.
However, this is not enough. All sectors of civil society must work together if we are to succeed in our objective to achieve food for all. Investing in agriculture and aquaculture for food security means that grassroots and local efforts together with government, the private sector, multilateral and bilateral efforts at national level should all be focused on a common vision and agenda for food security . Food security is defined as: “…all people, at all times, having the physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food in order to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (World Food Summit Plan of Action 1996)
. Aquaculture can contribute to improved food security and nutrition through various channels: local food supplies can be improved through the increased availability of low-cost fish; employment opportunities and incomes can be raised; and consumption of fish can be increased directly. While increasing the quantity and variety of fish and other foods consumed by the poor will reduce under-nutrition, such dietary improvements are not automatic benefits of aquaculture development. Food consumption and good nutrition are not determined solely by how much food is produced or available. Households must have physical and economic access to an adequate amount and variety of food, and household heads and care-givers must have the time, knowledge and motivation to make the best use of the household’s resources to meet the food and other basic needs of all members. The key to securing the maximum nutritional benefits from aquaculture development is to ensure that the poor and undernourished gain greater access to the increased supplies of fish and that they can enhance their aquaculture-derived income.
. Fish can make a unique contribution to efforts to improve and diversify dietary intakes and promote nutritional well-being among most population groups. Fish have a highly desirable nutrient profile providing an excellent source of high quality animal protein that is easily digestible and of high biological value. Fatty fish, in particular, are an extremely rich source of essential fatty acids, including omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), so important for normal growth and mental development, especially during pregnancy and early childhood. Fish are also rich in vitamins and minerals (especially calcium, phosphorus, iron, selenium and iodine in marine products).Fish therefore can provide an important source of nutrients particularly for those whose diets are monotonous and lacking in animal products. Increasing the availability of fish in the diet increases palatability and leads to increased consumption of a range of foods thereby improving overall food and nutrient intakes.
As mentioned, fish are important sources for many nutrients, including protein of very high quality, retinol (Vitamin A), vitamin D, vitamin E, iodine and selenium. Evidence is increasing that the consumption of fish enhances brain development and learning in children, protects vision and eye health, and offers protection from cardiovascular disease and some cancers. The fats and fatty acids in fish, particularly the long chain n-3 fatty acids (n-3 PUFA), are highly beneficial and difficult to obtain from other food sources. Of particular importance are eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3, DHA). A review of the benefits of fish consumption for mothers and infants was published by FAO in 2000. .
. Economic feasibility studies have shown that aquaculture is economically feasible under many different circumstances. Many types of low-cost, low-risk, simple technologies have emerged in recent years. Comparative studies between rice, rice-fish and fish-farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa demonstrated that farmers investing in aquaculture increased their household incomes considerably with only minor investments. In Europe, USA, China and other Asian countries the increases in production and the number of people active in aquaculture over the last decade have shown that production systems ranging from extensive to highly intensive can be economically feasible.
most of the world’s farmers are small-scale farmers. As a group, they are the biggest investors in agriculture and aquaculture. They also tend to have inadequate or precarious access to food themselves. If they can make a profit with their farming, they can feed their families throughout the year and reinvest in their farms by purchasing fertilizer, better quality seed and basic equipment.
Small producers face many obstacles beyond their control: lack of credit, insecure land tenure, poor transport, low prices and poorly developed business relations with agribusinesses – to say nothing of natural factors such as drought, flood, pests and disease.
Food production and sufficient supply for the country has, on the whole, been secured in spite of very limited natural resources and the growing population. However, due to insufficient local food production, lack of distribution and food supply systems and low incomes, food security still remains a crucial problem for many poor households. The shortage of arable land and resources is compounded by obsolete or absent technology and insufficient financial inputs into agriculture and aquaculture.
Investment in infrastructure in rural areas, especially in water, roads, power and communications, has a crucial role in kindling agricultural growth. If countries get these conditions right, dramatic benefits to agriculture and aquaculture and poor rural households can be expected.
However, this is not enough. All sectors of civil society must work together if we are to succeed in our objective to achieve food for all. Investing in agriculture and aquaculture for food security means that grassroots and local efforts together with government, the private sector, multilateral and bilateral efforts at national level should all be focused on a common vision and agenda for food security . Food security is defined as: “…all people, at all times, having the physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food in order to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (World Food Summit Plan of Action 1996)
. Aquaculture can contribute to improved food security and nutrition through various channels: local food supplies can be improved through the increased availability of low-cost fish; employment opportunities and incomes can be raised; and consumption of fish can be increased directly. While increasing the quantity and variety of fish and other foods consumed by the poor will reduce under-nutrition, such dietary improvements are not automatic benefits of aquaculture development. Food consumption and good nutrition are not determined solely by how much food is produced or available. Households must have physical and economic access to an adequate amount and variety of food, and household heads and care-givers must have the time, knowledge and motivation to make the best use of the household’s resources to meet the food and other basic needs of all members. The key to securing the maximum nutritional benefits from aquaculture development is to ensure that the poor and undernourished gain greater access to the increased supplies of fish and that they can enhance their aquaculture-derived income.
. Fish can make a unique contribution to efforts to improve and diversify dietary intakes and promote nutritional well-being among most population groups. Fish have a highly desirable nutrient profile providing an excellent source of high quality animal protein that is easily digestible and of high biological value. Fatty fish, in particular, are an extremely rich source of essential fatty acids, including omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), so important for normal growth and mental development, especially during pregnancy and early childhood. Fish are also rich in vitamins and minerals (especially calcium, phosphorus, iron, selenium and iodine in marine products).Fish therefore can provide an important source of nutrients particularly for those whose diets are monotonous and lacking in animal products. Increasing the availability of fish in the diet increases palatability and leads to increased consumption of a range of foods thereby improving overall food and nutrient intakes.
As mentioned, fish are important sources for many nutrients, including protein of very high quality, retinol (Vitamin A), vitamin D, vitamin E, iodine and selenium. Evidence is increasing that the consumption of fish enhances brain development and learning in children, protects vision and eye health, and offers protection from cardiovascular disease and some cancers. The fats and fatty acids in fish, particularly the long chain n-3 fatty acids (n-3 PUFA), are highly beneficial and difficult to obtain from other food sources. Of particular importance are eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3, DHA). A review of the benefits of fish consumption for mothers and infants was published by FAO in 2000. .
. Economic feasibility studies have shown that aquaculture is economically feasible under many different circumstances. Many types of low-cost, low-risk, simple technologies have emerged in recent years. Comparative studies between rice, rice-fish and fish-farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa demonstrated that farmers investing in aquaculture increased their household incomes considerably with only minor investments. In Europe, USA, China and other Asian countries the increases in production and the number of people active in aquaculture over the last decade have shown that production systems ranging from extensive to highly intensive can be economically feasible.
most of the world’s farmers are small-scale farmers. As a group, they are the biggest investors in agriculture and aquaculture. They also tend to have inadequate or precarious access to food themselves. If they can make a profit with their farming, they can feed their families throughout the year and reinvest in their farms by purchasing fertilizer, better quality seed and basic equipment.
Small producers face many obstacles beyond their control: lack of credit, insecure land tenure, poor transport, low prices and poorly developed business relations with agribusinesses – to say nothing of natural factors such as drought, flood, pests and disease.
Food production and sufficient supply for the country has, on the whole, been secured in spite of very limited natural resources and the growing population. However, due to insufficient local food production, lack of distribution and food supply systems and low incomes, food security still remains a crucial problem for many poor households. The shortage of arable land and resources is compounded by obsolete or absent technology and insufficient financial inputs into agriculture and aquaculture.
Investment in infrastructure in rural areas, especially in water, roads, power and communications, has a crucial role in kindling agricultural growth. If countries get these conditions right, dramatic benefits to agriculture and aquaculture and poor rural households can be expected.
Aquaculture Equipment and Supplies
Aquaculture equipment and supplies are products that are in demand all over the world. While demand is high, competition is high as well as merchants try to undermine one another for sales. If you are a merchant looking to sell aquaculture equipment and supplies in your local markets, one of the best services to use to gain an advantage in competition is Made in China. Made in China gives merchants looking to sell aquaculture equipment and supplies an advantage by connecting them with sourcing agents such as manufacturers and suppliers that offer high quality goods, variety and the lowest price points available.
Find Aquaculture Equipment and Supplies at the Lowest Prices
For merchants looking to purchase aquaculture equipment and supplies in bulk, one of the best ways to do so is connecting directly with the source and avoiding the middleman. With Made in China you can use our business to business e-commerce marketing platform to research a wide range of businesses that offer aquaculture equipment and supplies, find the ones that fit your business’s specific needs and then contact them directly. Just a few years ago, you would have to spend a considerable amount of time and lots of resources to make a connection. Today, you can connect with optimal sourcing agents in little or no time for next to nothing.
Made in China Offers one of the Best Membership Bases in the Industry
For merchants looking to buy aquaculture equipment and supplies from suppliers and manufacturers around the globe, our service offers a huge membership base to choose from. With a membership base of over 5 million businesses, you can find a wide range of sourcing agents that offer aquaculture equipment and supplies and capitalize on these connections. Our goal is to help businesses around the world excel at trade making long term relationships that benefit both parties.
Join Made in China and Benefit from Our Tools and Resources
Another great way for merchants looking to purchase aquaculture equipment and supplies is by offering overseas traders a variety of tools, resources and information to make their trading more efficient. Overseas trade can be complex and there are plenty of pitfalls and obstacles abound. However, Made in China is committed to offering all members plenty of tools so that they can trade efficiently and affordably. Whether you are looking to purchase aquaculture equipment and supplies or any other type of product, you can rest assured that with Made in China you can access tools that will ultimately simplify your trade. Made in China is currently Free to join, so don’t miss this business opportunity.
Biological Chain Theory Is Worth Discussing
Background
In 1843, Darwin started to explore the food chain. In 1923 (some said in 1927), the British zoologists Summerhayes and Elton put forward the concept of the food chain for the first time based on the relations among plants, animals and micro-organisms, and made it a complex network of interactions where energy and materials circulate within an ecosystem (1). Just because of the circulation, it was understood as the biological chain, and became the mode of the material cycle in the ecosystem. The questions ''who'' and ''when'' the food chain soon became an outright biological chain (2) remain unclear since there are no adequate resources and proof. Since then in nearly a century, this theory had been actually regarded as an indubitable creed and became an important basic theory of life sciences (See Fig. l).
FoodWeb.jpg
1. Serious Contradictions
It seems that the theory previously mentioned and described is irrefutable. However, with continuous discovery and gradual in-depth research, it appears that there are too many contradictions:
1.1 Blotted out the transformation law of decomposition and synthesis. Based on the illustration (Fig. 1), the food chain is simply shown as the substance cycle in the ecosystem, misleading people to believe that the figure is just the so-called substance cycle in the ecosystem. The figure only shows the food chain being a phenomenon of the substance cycle but it does not show the essence of the decomposition and synthesis that promote the substance cycle. At all the levels of the chain's transfers built up by plants – herbivores - carnivores, just as clearly shown in the figure that the soil microorganisms decompose the organic substances in the natural substance cycle, they are implying the process of the decomposition and synthesis.
It is the energy that drives the transformation between the substances. If there was no decomposition (catabolism), there would be no release of energy and energy flow, thus the so-called substance transformation would not be able to continue (4). The substance transformation from plants to animals and from animals to animals (that are in animal bodies) reflected in the food chain does not show or include decomposition (or catabolism), thus, giving the wrong idea of animal's food = animal, which does not conform to the law of substance transformation and energy flow.
1.2 Exclusion of the passage of atmospheric circulation. Again, referring to Fig. 1 where the sun is placed on top, it intends to show that the plants are storing energy through photosynthesis but it does not emphasize on the role of the atmosphere. It seems that the substance cycle only occurred between underground and ground surface. According to the willow test of Belgium scientist Helmont, carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is a major reactant for photosynthesis (5). In the course of the substance cycle when plant and animal bodies are decomposed by microorganisms, most of their substances would be volatilized to the atmosphere and take part in the natural re-cycle (4). This cycle where plants carry on their substance cycle through the atmosphere is excluded in the above figure.
1.3 Met an obstruction and discontinued the circulation. What the figure shows about food chain is an eating and being eaten relationship, however between the producers (plants) and decomposers (microorganisms), what the former would eat is not the latter, but the substances acted upon by the latter. As a result, the substance cycle reflected in this food chain would meet an obstruction and unable to continue its circulation.
1.4 Not being able to conform to the theory and reality. As the theoretical study continuously progresses, it does not conform to the theory and the reality that the figure of the food chain was divided into three major links as producers, consumers and decomposers:
1.4.1 Theoretical aspect
1.4.1.1 Food chain category: Food is the substances used in appeasing hunger. However, microorganisms do not have any alimentary function. If the Figure is to be treated as a pure food chain then it will be inaccurate since the microorganisms do not serve as food for plants or animals. The original intention to categorize organisms of the food chain into producers, consumers and decomposers is supposedly to represent the substance cycle, but the concept of the three major links are also not in the category of the food to appease hunger.
1.4.1.2 Biological chain category: Since the original intention of the author of the food chain was the desire to embody the substance cycle and divide the organisms into three major links (i.e. producers, consumers and decomposers) it should be understood in the biological chain category. Referring to the equation "a + b = c" from the article "Preliminary Analysis of Biological Enzymes Originating from Microorganisms", the microorganisms would play an intermediate role at all the levels of the substance transformation in the whole ecosystem (not only in nature) (6). It is just them to make the substances to have a mutual transformation between the inorganic and organic world, promote the decomposition and synthesis at all levels of substance movement and promote a continuous energy flow. In this case, they should not be the decomposers only in the natural substance cycle and become an essential link of the biological chain. The classification about the decomposers in Fig. 1 is obviously some offside and neither fish nor flesh as well. Thus it would not conform to the theory of the substance transformation and equation "a + b = c".
1.4.1.3 Right and wrong transformation mode interweaved mutually. Refer to "2. Biological chain ≠ food chain" in this article. When the plants and animal bodies are reflected to be transformed in the soil, Fig. 1 applies the equation "a + b = c", which is reasonable and right. But In the reflected transforming process of plants - animals and animals - animals, that is in the animal bodies, what are applied is the equation "a + 0 = c", that is the transformation occurred under no change of any addent or others, which is obviously wrong. Because the equation "a + b = c" is used in the easily observable and acceptable link, people are confused to believe that the biological chain = food chain, so that the right and wrong concept are intertwined, mutually contradictory and difficultly distinguished. That is neither fish nor fowl, resulting in the biological chain and food chain mixed into one pot of porridge, boiling for nearly a century.
1.4.2Reality side
The microorganisms embodied in the food chain only appeared in the soil, but in fact they massively exist in the animal body, too. This aspect does not conform to the reality.
2.Biological Chain ≠ Food Chain
The traditional theoretical view is that the biological chain＝food chain (2). There is no difference between them. But in fact, there is an essential difference between them. (See the table below).
Comparable table of living things and food
Item Living things Food
Entry
1 Including micro-organisms. Not including micro-organisms.
2 Including the contact with Not Including the contact
inorganic world. with inorganic world.
3 Relative subject in material cycle. Relative object in material cycle.
4 Living, able to metabolize. Nonliving?unable to metabolize.
5 Ingester of energy. Supplier of energy.
We can see from Entry 3/4/5 in the table, living things and food seem to be two sides of one matter: the subject and object of the substance transformation in the substance cycle movement. If only these were considered, it would be impeccable to call the biological chain as food chain. However, there are no symmetrical relations in the Entry 1/2, meaning including or not the microorganisms and the contact with the inorganic world. Only including the microorganisms it could have the transforming relationship with the inorganic world and bring about the circulation. If not, the transforming relationship with the inorganic world could not occur and bring about the circulation. Of course it might be said that inorganic substances are the autotrophic microorganisms' food, but the microorganisms have not been included in the food concept, and even there are not any other living things to take the autotrophic microorganisms for their food to continue the circulation of the food chain.
If it might be said that the organic substances (carbohydrates) could serve as the heterotrophic microorganisms' food, but to make an inference according to the theory of "Preliminary Analysis of Biological Enzymes Originating from Microorganisms" and an analysis that the food, after most of the nutrient have been absorbed in the small intestine, would cause a massive proliferation of microorganisms only into the large intestine, the heterotrophic microorganisms' food should yet be different from the animals'. At the same time, there are no other living things as a relay member in the substance cycle movement would take them (heterotrophic microorganisms) for its food to continue the circulation of the food chain. On the contrary, this is further to explain they only belong to a role to promote the substance transformation.
Although edible fungus could be used as human and other animal's food, it is only restricted in the fungus type, does not represent the broad heading of the microorganisms and is not yet the necessary food for human and other animals. Moreover, whether the edible fungus should be classified as microorganisms or plants, there is no final conclusion. Some aquatic animals sometimes may take aquatic microorganisms (such as seaweed or algae) as their food. However, although the edible fungus and algae fall into the microorganisms in classification, they are not "micro" now, and not the ones that can only be seen via a microscope, but rather can be visible and tangible. Human and animals are naturally to make use of these natural resources in their growth and multiplication.
Very obviously, the food chain inventor intended to reflect the meaning of the substance cycle in the biological chain. From the above analysis we could see that the biological chain should contain all the living things, including the microorganisms and the relation between the living nature and inorganic world. What it would embody is the material property that the substances could be transformed each other and circulate unceasingly. But the food chain occurs actually between plants and animals, then between animals and animals. What it embodied is the material property that food might appease hunger, and it should not include the microorganisms, which had no food function and only acted as a medium in the substance transformation. The biological chain could cycle repeatedly, but the food chain could only be a unidirectional movement. The above analysis shows that the biological chain ≠ food chain, which should not be confused in concept. If the microorganisms were far-fetchedly dragged into the food chain, then which was renamed as the biological chain and attempted to make it to reflect the substance cycle, it would be somewhat poles apart. The result can only produce confusion in the basic theory concept and cause the disorder of the relevant disciplines.
Such confusion in the basic theory concept and its caused disorder has been producing a great harm. First is the humanity ourselves. Except having restricted a breakthrough and further development of the theory of medical, health and nutrition, it has been misleading us in practice to believe that food could be directly transformed into the human body and not to value the role of the microorganisms in the body (even some synthetic drugs would kill the microorganisms in vivo). Even the role of large intestine, where is the main site of the microorganism activities, can not be paid an enough attention in theory and practice and occupy its rightful place in the whole human digestive system. Therefore it has affected people's health seriously and even caused many diseases difficult to be explained at present. Next, that has had a serious influence to the agriculture, animal husbandry and fishery production. Because the biological chain belongs to the basic theory, many of the specific researches in the life sciences would be led to a directional error with its fetter and unable to have an active breakthrough and development in the right direction.
In 1843, Darwin started to explore the food chain. In 1923 (some said in 1927), the British zoologists Summerhayes and Elton put forward the concept of the food chain for the first time based on the relations among plants, animals and micro-organisms, and made it a complex network of interactions where energy and materials circulate within an ecosystem (1). Just because of the circulation, it was understood as the biological chain, and became the mode of the material cycle in the ecosystem. The questions ''who'' and ''when'' the food chain soon became an outright biological chain (2) remain unclear since there are no adequate resources and proof. Since then in nearly a century, this theory had been actually regarded as an indubitable creed and became an important basic theory of life sciences (See Fig. l).
FoodWeb.jpg
1. Serious Contradictions
It seems that the theory previously mentioned and described is irrefutable. However, with continuous discovery and gradual in-depth research, it appears that there are too many contradictions:
1.1 Blotted out the transformation law of decomposition and synthesis. Based on the illustration (Fig. 1), the food chain is simply shown as the substance cycle in the ecosystem, misleading people to believe that the figure is just the so-called substance cycle in the ecosystem. The figure only shows the food chain being a phenomenon of the substance cycle but it does not show the essence of the decomposition and synthesis that promote the substance cycle. At all the levels of the chain's transfers built up by plants – herbivores - carnivores, just as clearly shown in the figure that the soil microorganisms decompose the organic substances in the natural substance cycle, they are implying the process of the decomposition and synthesis.
It is the energy that drives the transformation between the substances. If there was no decomposition (catabolism), there would be no release of energy and energy flow, thus the so-called substance transformation would not be able to continue (4). The substance transformation from plants to animals and from animals to animals (that are in animal bodies) reflected in the food chain does not show or include decomposition (or catabolism), thus, giving the wrong idea of animal's food = animal, which does not conform to the law of substance transformation and energy flow.
1.2 Exclusion of the passage of atmospheric circulation. Again, referring to Fig. 1 where the sun is placed on top, it intends to show that the plants are storing energy through photosynthesis but it does not emphasize on the role of the atmosphere. It seems that the substance cycle only occurred between underground and ground surface. According to the willow test of Belgium scientist Helmont, carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is a major reactant for photosynthesis (5). In the course of the substance cycle when plant and animal bodies are decomposed by microorganisms, most of their substances would be volatilized to the atmosphere and take part in the natural re-cycle (4). This cycle where plants carry on their substance cycle through the atmosphere is excluded in the above figure.
1.3 Met an obstruction and discontinued the circulation. What the figure shows about food chain is an eating and being eaten relationship, however between the producers (plants) and decomposers (microorganisms), what the former would eat is not the latter, but the substances acted upon by the latter. As a result, the substance cycle reflected in this food chain would meet an obstruction and unable to continue its circulation.
1.4 Not being able to conform to the theory and reality. As the theoretical study continuously progresses, it does not conform to the theory and the reality that the figure of the food chain was divided into three major links as producers, consumers and decomposers:
1.4.1 Theoretical aspect
1.4.1.1 Food chain category: Food is the substances used in appeasing hunger. However, microorganisms do not have any alimentary function. If the Figure is to be treated as a pure food chain then it will be inaccurate since the microorganisms do not serve as food for plants or animals. The original intention to categorize organisms of the food chain into producers, consumers and decomposers is supposedly to represent the substance cycle, but the concept of the three major links are also not in the category of the food to appease hunger.
1.4.1.2 Biological chain category: Since the original intention of the author of the food chain was the desire to embody the substance cycle and divide the organisms into three major links (i.e. producers, consumers and decomposers) it should be understood in the biological chain category. Referring to the equation "a + b = c" from the article "Preliminary Analysis of Biological Enzymes Originating from Microorganisms", the microorganisms would play an intermediate role at all the levels of the substance transformation in the whole ecosystem (not only in nature) (6). It is just them to make the substances to have a mutual transformation between the inorganic and organic world, promote the decomposition and synthesis at all levels of substance movement and promote a continuous energy flow. In this case, they should not be the decomposers only in the natural substance cycle and become an essential link of the biological chain. The classification about the decomposers in Fig. 1 is obviously some offside and neither fish nor flesh as well. Thus it would not conform to the theory of the substance transformation and equation "a + b = c".
1.4.1.3 Right and wrong transformation mode interweaved mutually. Refer to "2. Biological chain ≠ food chain" in this article. When the plants and animal bodies are reflected to be transformed in the soil, Fig. 1 applies the equation "a + b = c", which is reasonable and right. But In the reflected transforming process of plants - animals and animals - animals, that is in the animal bodies, what are applied is the equation "a + 0 = c", that is the transformation occurred under no change of any addent or others, which is obviously wrong. Because the equation "a + b = c" is used in the easily observable and acceptable link, people are confused to believe that the biological chain = food chain, so that the right and wrong concept are intertwined, mutually contradictory and difficultly distinguished. That is neither fish nor fowl, resulting in the biological chain and food chain mixed into one pot of porridge, boiling for nearly a century.
1.4.2Reality side
The microorganisms embodied in the food chain only appeared in the soil, but in fact they massively exist in the animal body, too. This aspect does not conform to the reality.
2.Biological Chain ≠ Food Chain
The traditional theoretical view is that the biological chain＝food chain (2). There is no difference between them. But in fact, there is an essential difference between them. (See the table below).
Comparable table of living things and food
Item Living things Food
Entry
1 Including micro-organisms. Not including micro-organisms.
2 Including the contact with Not Including the contact
inorganic world. with inorganic world.
3 Relative subject in material cycle. Relative object in material cycle.
4 Living, able to metabolize. Nonliving?unable to metabolize.
5 Ingester of energy. Supplier of energy.
We can see from Entry 3/4/5 in the table, living things and food seem to be two sides of one matter: the subject and object of the substance transformation in the substance cycle movement. If only these were considered, it would be impeccable to call the biological chain as food chain. However, there are no symmetrical relations in the Entry 1/2, meaning including or not the microorganisms and the contact with the inorganic world. Only including the microorganisms it could have the transforming relationship with the inorganic world and bring about the circulation. If not, the transforming relationship with the inorganic world could not occur and bring about the circulation. Of course it might be said that inorganic substances are the autotrophic microorganisms' food, but the microorganisms have not been included in the food concept, and even there are not any other living things to take the autotrophic microorganisms for their food to continue the circulation of the food chain.
If it might be said that the organic substances (carbohydrates) could serve as the heterotrophic microorganisms' food, but to make an inference according to the theory of "Preliminary Analysis of Biological Enzymes Originating from Microorganisms" and an analysis that the food, after most of the nutrient have been absorbed in the small intestine, would cause a massive proliferation of microorganisms only into the large intestine, the heterotrophic microorganisms' food should yet be different from the animals'. At the same time, there are no other living things as a relay member in the substance cycle movement would take them (heterotrophic microorganisms) for its food to continue the circulation of the food chain. On the contrary, this is further to explain they only belong to a role to promote the substance transformation.
Although edible fungus could be used as human and other animal's food, it is only restricted in the fungus type, does not represent the broad heading of the microorganisms and is not yet the necessary food for human and other animals. Moreover, whether the edible fungus should be classified as microorganisms or plants, there is no final conclusion. Some aquatic animals sometimes may take aquatic microorganisms (such as seaweed or algae) as their food. However, although the edible fungus and algae fall into the microorganisms in classification, they are not "micro" now, and not the ones that can only be seen via a microscope, but rather can be visible and tangible. Human and animals are naturally to make use of these natural resources in their growth and multiplication.
Very obviously, the food chain inventor intended to reflect the meaning of the substance cycle in the biological chain. From the above analysis we could see that the biological chain should contain all the living things, including the microorganisms and the relation between the living nature and inorganic world. What it would embody is the material property that the substances could be transformed each other and circulate unceasingly. But the food chain occurs actually between plants and animals, then between animals and animals. What it embodied is the material property that food might appease hunger, and it should not include the microorganisms, which had no food function and only acted as a medium in the substance transformation. The biological chain could cycle repeatedly, but the food chain could only be a unidirectional movement. The above analysis shows that the biological chain ≠ food chain, which should not be confused in concept. If the microorganisms were far-fetchedly dragged into the food chain, then which was renamed as the biological chain and attempted to make it to reflect the substance cycle, it would be somewhat poles apart. The result can only produce confusion in the basic theory concept and cause the disorder of the relevant disciplines.
Such confusion in the basic theory concept and its caused disorder has been producing a great harm. First is the humanity ourselves. Except having restricted a breakthrough and further development of the theory of medical, health and nutrition, it has been misleading us in practice to believe that food could be directly transformed into the human body and not to value the role of the microorganisms in the body (even some synthetic drugs would kill the microorganisms in vivo). Even the role of large intestine, where is the main site of the microorganism activities, can not be paid an enough attention in theory and practice and occupy its rightful place in the whole human digestive system. Therefore it has affected people's health seriously and even caused many diseases difficult to be explained at present. Next, that has had a serious influence to the agriculture, animal husbandry and fishery production. Because the biological chain belongs to the basic theory, many of the specific researches in the life sciences would be led to a directional error with its fetter and unable to have an active breakthrough and development in the right direction.
Theoretical Exploration on Biological Metabolism and Biological Cycle
we have already confirmed that the direct kinetic energy in the biological cycle of substances comes from microorganisms. Of course, some people may say that the kinetic energy of matter motion should come from the sun, which is nothing wrong. But the effect of the sun is indirect, not direct. In this sense, the metabolism itself has a undivided relation with microorganisms, and the kinetic energy of metabolism is bound to come from microorganisms too.
Since the spaces of the plant and animal digestive tracts are in vitro, they could not directly absorb physical substances, and enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins would play their role in advance before the physical substances enter the plant and animal bodies, it explains that the functions of these functional substances are correspondent with the microorganisms'
First of all, since we have confirmed that the needed substances of plants are started by microorganisms, then, is it possible that the needed substances of animals are started by the plant and animal bodies themselves?! Is it possible that the substances in the digestive tract could be transformed into the animal substances without outcomers?!
If no animal, and only plant and microorganisms in the biosphere, the biological cycle of substances would still go on as usual, and its form is just the simple phytosynthesis from inorganic substances and restoration of organic ones. If there are still some natural physical phenomena to share a partial function of autotrophic microorganisms at the starting point of biological cycle of substances, then all the restoration of organic substances would fall on heterotrophic microorganisms. On this point there should be no disagreement. In other words, in this simple type of biological cycle of substances, its overall phytosynthesis and restoration, in particular the restoration, are done by microorganisms. It is very clear that the motion of the substances in biosphere begins from (autotrophic) microorganisms, and ends with (heterotrophic) microorganisms. It fully embodies the "artificer" role of microorganisms, which has been reflected very clearly through the start and end points of biological cycle of substances as well as numerous research materials. But the reality is that, against the backdrop of the substance cycle in the biosphere, it has evolved into such a branch - animals who utilizes the organic substances, and has dichotomized a turn in the large circulation and generated a small turnabout in the process of restoring organic substances. Under this background, the metabolism of the human or animal body would be naturally subject to the general law of substance transformation, and certainly controled by microorganisms. Their synthesis must be built on the basis of the microbial breakdown of the organic substances, because there was no breakdown there would be no synthesis in the unity of opposites of the metabolism in the animal body. Otherwise, if the breakdown and synthesis in the animal body created a new law of substance transformation by itself and made it independent from the natural law, would not that be a monstrous absurdity?!
please refer to the "Diagram of biological cycle of substances (hereinafter called "diagram"). May see from the diagram, the substance cycle is divided into two steps: the first step is phytosynthesis; second step is restoration. Since the plants or organic substances are phytosynthesized from inorganic substances, whether utilized by animal or not, they have already stepped into the journey of restoration. Also can see from the diagram, animals appear in the second step – the restoring process. The decomposition of plants, and then synthesized into animal body, all occur in this process. It should be noted that the above-mentioned and shown in the diagram, only inorganic or organic substances can not have a metabolic activity, which must take place accompanied by microorganisms. The diagram also reflects, during the entire process of biological cycle, it is microorganisms to promote the substances in motion all the time, never gap. This reflects the universal law of nature, and is difficult to deny. In particular, the restoration of organic substances, all is controlled by microorganisms, which is particularly important in examining the errors in the traditional theory. We all also know, the condition of the animal generation is the decomposition of organic substances, and animals can synthesize themselves only on complying with the decomposition of organic substances. From the practical viewpoint of the needed substances of animals, they are also decomposed in the digestive tract before the absorption of the body. From the major aspect, whether animals themselves or their needed substances, both of them occur in the second step and are started by microorganisms in general, because, in view of the animal body alone, there must be the decomposition before synthesis. This has been decided by the natural law of matter motion, and could not allow us to create side issues.
In the (phytosynthesis or) synthesis of plants and animals, they are synthesizees, belong to the synthetic object and are equal to the "house". If plants and animals could synthesize the enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins responsible for their metabolism by themselves, they would become the subject of their synthesis and re-synthesis after decomposition, and belong to the "artificers". Such a situation both as the object synthesizees and as the subject synthesizers, itself has formed an irreconcilable conflict, and is equal to "the house has built itself with the building materials", which could not make sense in any case.
Moreover, we have already ascertained that the procedure to remove electrons is the start point of the biological cycle of substances. It shows that the total amount of the substances in biosphere is determined by autotrophic microorganisms. Similarly, the restoration of all the organic substances is also determined by heterotrophic microorganisms. In other words, how much organic matter to be phytosynthesized and restored are all determined by microorganisms. Since there is such a general law of the substance transformation in the biosphere, then it is bound to be disassembled in the substance transformation in different habitats. According to the different substances and habitats (such as nature and animal digestive tract), the microbial reproduction and variation would also be different, their secretions - enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins would be different too. Where there is how much substances need to be transformed and need how to be transformed, there would be how many microorganisms to phytosynthesize and restore them, as a result having determined how much enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins secreted by them to carry out these actions. Speaking from this point, the plant and animal bodies can only comply with the law of the generation of enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins, should not make a fresh start and create another ritual of the generation of enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins.
At present, the theory circle has all recognized in the study of microorganisms that they must catalyze inorganic and organic substances with the enzymes secreted by them in their growth, development and reproduction, and obtain the nutrients and energy needed by themselves. But when the substances went into the biological cycle, people would completely ignore the reality that microorganisms have been secreting enzymes, seek new secretors for these functional substances and gather the vision on the plant and animal cells. Although it was full of contradictions, they have been still caring nothing, thus which has formed an obvious fault in the theoretical research and popularization.
It can be seen from Table 2 that these substances, enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins, have the completely different properties from the other substances involved in the biochemical reactions, and show their characteristic of catalytic functions, which form a corresponding relationship of subject and object with the other substances. This corresponding relationship is just the one between microorganisms and those ordinary substances.
Therefore, both of the catabolism and anabolism in the animal body are inevitably the behavior of microorganisms. That microorganisms are going to have a relationship with the substances, only can be carried out by the catalysts or functional substances, enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins, secreted by them, which is the necessary way that microorganisms have a relationship with the substances,
So far as discussed, we may have a comparative study of the traditional theory and re-understanding with a schematic table.
7.1. According to the traditional theory that enzymes come from the self-synthesis and plants, its schematic table should be as follows:
Schematic contrast table of plant and animal metabolism
in the traditional theory
(available at http://www.bbfactor.com/group.php?keyno=26)
Table 3
From Table 1 and Table 3, we can see that there is a very apparent asymmetry between the substance / energy metabolism of plants and animals.
7.2. Based on our re-understanding of the substance / energy metabolism of plants and animals, Table 3 should be amended as follows:
(available at http://www.bbfactor.com/group.php?keyno=26)
Table 4
On the absorption of the enzymes secreted by microorganisms, people might be worry about whether they would adapt to the immune system of our body. In fact, our body absorbs the microbial enzymes every day. A). For example, the foods we eat every day, there are always microorganisms attached to them (even at high temperatures, there would be the presence of microorganisms, because microorganisms have a superior adaptation to the extreme environments). As long as there is the presence of microorganisms, they would surely produce enzymes, and all of these enzymes would go into our digestive tract for our body to absorb. B). For another example, some beggars sometimes pick up food from garbage, but allergic reactions rarely occur. C). One of the most telling is that the microorganisms in our oral cavity and colon secrete enzymes and vitamins in large quantities, but our body have no immune response after the absorption.
8. conclusions
The unity of opposites in vivo and in vitro, the unity of opposites on functional substances and ordinary organic substances, the unity of opposites on plants and animals as well as their needed substances (equal to the natural world), the unity of opposites on the autotrophic and heterotrophic, the unity of opposites on phytosynthesis and restoration, the unity of opposites on biological metabolism and biological cycle of substances, the unity of opposites on macroscope and microscope , the unity of opposites on inorganic world and organic world, as well as the universal connexions among things, these are the basic thinkingfollowed in this paper.
Using the philosophical methods as analyzing tools, upon an extensive connection and full analysis of the ready-made conclusions and general knowledge in different relevant respects, this paper pulled out several key points:
① By the re-understanding of in vivo and in vitro, grasped the contradiction on the absorption of the plant leaves and roots and restored the chloroplasts, discovered that all the required substances of plants and animals need a preprocessing procedure when these substances entered their bodies, and there exists a preprocessing transitional space of their required substances in vitro or in vivo. As a result, it led us to go deep into the core of the problems step by step and found a key for these locks.
② Based on the current theory that only the inorganic substances in ionic form can be absorbed by plants, discovered that plant and animal bodies can not have a direct relationship with physical substances. Following this clue, subsequently discovered that plants have not a direct relationship with heterotrophic microorganisms. From this, it revealed the serious loopholes in the traditional theory.
③According to the reality that the traditional biological chain has omitted autotrophic microorganisms, discovered that the traditional theory has also simultaneously omitted heterotrophic microorganisms.
④ Through the generating mode of inorganic ions and filling up the theoretical loopholes in the traditional biological chain, pulled out the start point of the biological cycle of substances, thus also pulled out the end point of the biological cycle of substances. According to the essential functions of autotrophic and heterotrophic microorganisms, discovered that they are the real promoters of the biological cycle of substances.
⑤ According to the essence of metabolism, the metabolism of plants and animals formed a relationship of the unity of opposites, and made animals subject to plants in biosphere. Meanwhile, in the unity of opposites on the phytosynthesis and restoration, confirmed that the phytosynthesis is primary, which is just the opposite that the animals' decomposition is primary.
⑥According to the essential function of enzymes, found there is a relationship of the unity of opposites between them and ordinary proteins, so then treated them in different ways. According to the commonness of enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins in the biochemical reactions, listed all of them as the functional substances. Then according to the different essence of the functional substances from ordinary organic substances, and their specific properties completely consistent with the microorganisms', related the functional substances to microorganisms.
⑦ By the list of Table 2, found all the substances involved in the biochemical reactions must be chemicalized, and all the substance transformations in the biological world are the results of the biochemical reactions. Confirmed that enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins are part of the necessary substances and special mode that microorganisms take part in the biochemical reactions in different habitats. Then classified respectively the phytosynthesizing and breakdown / restorative enzymes to autotrophic and heterotrophic microorganisms.
Based on the breakthrough in biological enzymes coming from microorganisms and combined with the classification of the "functional components (2)" in the current university textbooks, both of enzymes and vitamins fell to functional substances, so that created a opposite and untied relation between them and ordinary (organic) substances. In addition, also including the re-understanding of in vivo and in vitro and restoration of chloroplasts, they were the keys of all the above key points. It was based on these three keys that led a comprehensive breakthrough in the puzzles of many contradictions. Except the above three key points, all the materials cited in this study were some ready-made conclusions and general knowledge recognized by the current scientific community. It was mainly because of the different analysis and research methods that led the different conclusions.
The features of this study do not lie in experiments, but in its analysis and research methods. By means of the ready-made conclusions on experiments and general knowledge, it is able to overcome the limitations of only relying on experiments, thereupon then to solve what relationships the various substances in the biological cycle should be and how they should have a relationship with plants and animals, and also cause a remedy and adjustment to the relationships among various factors in the biological metabolism and biological cycle of substances. Generally speaking, it has remedied and adjusted the relationships among the three categories of creatures in the biological world – microorganisms, plants and animals, as well as between them and physical substances. As a result, this theoretical exploration has formed a notable difference from the traditional theory, and created a completely new understanding of the theory.
Autotrophic microorganisms are a major biological population in the biosphere, are the very opposite of heterotrophic microorganisms, and even more are the basis of heterotrophic microorganisms. Their importance is by no means less than heterotrophic microorganisms and we have to pay serious attention to them.
These conclusions are not racking our brains to collect facts in order to reinforce the argument, but the theory and the various contradictions in reality make them so. They are the inevitable outcome caused by the theory and those contradictions in reality, and also the subtext implied in the research articles of many scientists for many years. They are indeed many more than we had expected at the beginning and in the process of exploring the various contradictions.
From the above discussions, it is not difficult to find that the current theoretical studies of life sciences have remarkable achievements, but always can not break the shackles of the traditional theory, causing the theoretical research moves forward gradually in one side, while its practice in another side (for example the application of the basic theory in nutriology, medical science and the production of agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry) is still persisting in their old ways, having formed a very contradictory situation that they act wilfully. This contradiction is more and more outstanding, more and more obvious. At the same time it also shows that, at present we are still too little understanding of micro-organisms (it is only a few hundred years that mankind cognized microorganisms, and the found quantity is estimated only 20% of their total), the research direction is not enough clear (such as the classification of the autotrophic and heterotrophic micro-organisms in strategy and the research of their essential functions), the accumulation of power is not enough strong to break the shackles of the traditional theory, and we have yet to carry on a greater impact to the traditional theory with stronger evidence.
As my thinking and understanding in this paper are very young, in addition my ABC is very poor, so hope your experts give directions to me!
First draft: Nov. 28, 2009. Revised: Dec. 31, 2009. Finished: Mar. 17, 2010.
Revised upon the opinions of experts: Apr. 06, 2010.
References:
1, Endosymbiotic theory, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (8 April 2010), available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory.
2, (China) He Sui-Yuan and Jin Yun-Yun, Environment Chemistry（December 1996），P 31/23，available at http://wenku.baidu.com/view/c1598fc24028915f804dc266.html.
3, (China) Drinking water and human health, Sohu Home (31 January 2010), available at http://home.focus.cn/msgview/1713/184979934.html.
4, (China) biological cycle of substances, From Baidupedia (15 January 2008), available at http://baike.baidu.com/view/1364250.htm?fr=ala0_1.
5, (China) Six Main Nutrients, Baidupedia (04 May 2010), available at http://baike.baidu.com/view/782649.htm.
6, (China) Latest Complete Collection, National Food Safety Quality Identification and Test Standard, The Web Site of bbs.foodmate.net (02 May 2007), available at http://bbs.foodmate.net/viewthread.php?tid=115968&extra=&page=1.
Since the spaces of the plant and animal digestive tracts are in vitro, they could not directly absorb physical substances, and enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins would play their role in advance before the physical substances enter the plant and animal bodies, it explains that the functions of these functional substances are correspondent with the microorganisms'
First of all, since we have confirmed that the needed substances of plants are started by microorganisms, then, is it possible that the needed substances of animals are started by the plant and animal bodies themselves?! Is it possible that the substances in the digestive tract could be transformed into the animal substances without outcomers?!
If no animal, and only plant and microorganisms in the biosphere, the biological cycle of substances would still go on as usual, and its form is just the simple phytosynthesis from inorganic substances and restoration of organic ones. If there are still some natural physical phenomena to share a partial function of autotrophic microorganisms at the starting point of biological cycle of substances, then all the restoration of organic substances would fall on heterotrophic microorganisms. On this point there should be no disagreement. In other words, in this simple type of biological cycle of substances, its overall phytosynthesis and restoration, in particular the restoration, are done by microorganisms. It is very clear that the motion of the substances in biosphere begins from (autotrophic) microorganisms, and ends with (heterotrophic) microorganisms. It fully embodies the "artificer" role of microorganisms, which has been reflected very clearly through the start and end points of biological cycle of substances as well as numerous research materials. But the reality is that, against the backdrop of the substance cycle in the biosphere, it has evolved into such a branch - animals who utilizes the organic substances, and has dichotomized a turn in the large circulation and generated a small turnabout in the process of restoring organic substances. Under this background, the metabolism of the human or animal body would be naturally subject to the general law of substance transformation, and certainly controled by microorganisms. Their synthesis must be built on the basis of the microbial breakdown of the organic substances, because there was no breakdown there would be no synthesis in the unity of opposites of the metabolism in the animal body. Otherwise, if the breakdown and synthesis in the animal body created a new law of substance transformation by itself and made it independent from the natural law, would not that be a monstrous absurdity?!
please refer to the "Diagram of biological cycle of substances (hereinafter called "diagram"). May see from the diagram, the substance cycle is divided into two steps: the first step is phytosynthesis; second step is restoration. Since the plants or organic substances are phytosynthesized from inorganic substances, whether utilized by animal or not, they have already stepped into the journey of restoration. Also can see from the diagram, animals appear in the second step – the restoring process. The decomposition of plants, and then synthesized into animal body, all occur in this process. It should be noted that the above-mentioned and shown in the diagram, only inorganic or organic substances can not have a metabolic activity, which must take place accompanied by microorganisms. The diagram also reflects, during the entire process of biological cycle, it is microorganisms to promote the substances in motion all the time, never gap. This reflects the universal law of nature, and is difficult to deny. In particular, the restoration of organic substances, all is controlled by microorganisms, which is particularly important in examining the errors in the traditional theory. We all also know, the condition of the animal generation is the decomposition of organic substances, and animals can synthesize themselves only on complying with the decomposition of organic substances. From the practical viewpoint of the needed substances of animals, they are also decomposed in the digestive tract before the absorption of the body. From the major aspect, whether animals themselves or their needed substances, both of them occur in the second step and are started by microorganisms in general, because, in view of the animal body alone, there must be the decomposition before synthesis. This has been decided by the natural law of matter motion, and could not allow us to create side issues.
In the (phytosynthesis or) synthesis of plants and animals, they are synthesizees, belong to the synthetic object and are equal to the "house". If plants and animals could synthesize the enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins responsible for their metabolism by themselves, they would become the subject of their synthesis and re-synthesis after decomposition, and belong to the "artificers". Such a situation both as the object synthesizees and as the subject synthesizers, itself has formed an irreconcilable conflict, and is equal to "the house has built itself with the building materials", which could not make sense in any case.
Moreover, we have already ascertained that the procedure to remove electrons is the start point of the biological cycle of substances. It shows that the total amount of the substances in biosphere is determined by autotrophic microorganisms. Similarly, the restoration of all the organic substances is also determined by heterotrophic microorganisms. In other words, how much organic matter to be phytosynthesized and restored are all determined by microorganisms. Since there is such a general law of the substance transformation in the biosphere, then it is bound to be disassembled in the substance transformation in different habitats. According to the different substances and habitats (such as nature and animal digestive tract), the microbial reproduction and variation would also be different, their secretions - enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins would be different too. Where there is how much substances need to be transformed and need how to be transformed, there would be how many microorganisms to phytosynthesize and restore them, as a result having determined how much enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins secreted by them to carry out these actions. Speaking from this point, the plant and animal bodies can only comply with the law of the generation of enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins, should not make a fresh start and create another ritual of the generation of enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins.
At present, the theory circle has all recognized in the study of microorganisms that they must catalyze inorganic and organic substances with the enzymes secreted by them in their growth, development and reproduction, and obtain the nutrients and energy needed by themselves. But when the substances went into the biological cycle, people would completely ignore the reality that microorganisms have been secreting enzymes, seek new secretors for these functional substances and gather the vision on the plant and animal cells. Although it was full of contradictions, they have been still caring nothing, thus which has formed an obvious fault in the theoretical research and popularization.
It can be seen from Table 2 that these substances, enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins, have the completely different properties from the other substances involved in the biochemical reactions, and show their characteristic of catalytic functions, which form a corresponding relationship of subject and object with the other substances. This corresponding relationship is just the one between microorganisms and those ordinary substances.
Therefore, both of the catabolism and anabolism in the animal body are inevitably the behavior of microorganisms. That microorganisms are going to have a relationship with the substances, only can be carried out by the catalysts or functional substances, enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins, secreted by them, which is the necessary way that microorganisms have a relationship with the substances,
So far as discussed, we may have a comparative study of the traditional theory and re-understanding with a schematic table.
7.1. According to the traditional theory that enzymes come from the self-synthesis and plants, its schematic table should be as follows:
Schematic contrast table of plant and animal metabolism
in the traditional theory
(available at http://www.bbfactor.com/group.php?keyno=26)
Table 3
From Table 1 and Table 3, we can see that there is a very apparent asymmetry between the substance / energy metabolism of plants and animals.
7.2. Based on our re-understanding of the substance / energy metabolism of plants and animals, Table 3 should be amended as follows:
(available at http://www.bbfactor.com/group.php?keyno=26)
Table 4
On the absorption of the enzymes secreted by microorganisms, people might be worry about whether they would adapt to the immune system of our body. In fact, our body absorbs the microbial enzymes every day. A). For example, the foods we eat every day, there are always microorganisms attached to them (even at high temperatures, there would be the presence of microorganisms, because microorganisms have a superior adaptation to the extreme environments). As long as there is the presence of microorganisms, they would surely produce enzymes, and all of these enzymes would go into our digestive tract for our body to absorb. B). For another example, some beggars sometimes pick up food from garbage, but allergic reactions rarely occur. C). One of the most telling is that the microorganisms in our oral cavity and colon secrete enzymes and vitamins in large quantities, but our body have no immune response after the absorption.
8. conclusions
The unity of opposites in vivo and in vitro, the unity of opposites on functional substances and ordinary organic substances, the unity of opposites on plants and animals as well as their needed substances (equal to the natural world), the unity of opposites on the autotrophic and heterotrophic, the unity of opposites on phytosynthesis and restoration, the unity of opposites on biological metabolism and biological cycle of substances, the unity of opposites on macroscope and microscope , the unity of opposites on inorganic world and organic world, as well as the universal connexions among things, these are the basic thinkingfollowed in this paper.
Using the philosophical methods as analyzing tools, upon an extensive connection and full analysis of the ready-made conclusions and general knowledge in different relevant respects, this paper pulled out several key points:
① By the re-understanding of in vivo and in vitro, grasped the contradiction on the absorption of the plant leaves and roots and restored the chloroplasts, discovered that all the required substances of plants and animals need a preprocessing procedure when these substances entered their bodies, and there exists a preprocessing transitional space of their required substances in vitro or in vivo. As a result, it led us to go deep into the core of the problems step by step and found a key for these locks.
② Based on the current theory that only the inorganic substances in ionic form can be absorbed by plants, discovered that plant and animal bodies can not have a direct relationship with physical substances. Following this clue, subsequently discovered that plants have not a direct relationship with heterotrophic microorganisms. From this, it revealed the serious loopholes in the traditional theory.
③According to the reality that the traditional biological chain has omitted autotrophic microorganisms, discovered that the traditional theory has also simultaneously omitted heterotrophic microorganisms.
④ Through the generating mode of inorganic ions and filling up the theoretical loopholes in the traditional biological chain, pulled out the start point of the biological cycle of substances, thus also pulled out the end point of the biological cycle of substances. According to the essential functions of autotrophic and heterotrophic microorganisms, discovered that they are the real promoters of the biological cycle of substances.
⑤ According to the essence of metabolism, the metabolism of plants and animals formed a relationship of the unity of opposites, and made animals subject to plants in biosphere. Meanwhile, in the unity of opposites on the phytosynthesis and restoration, confirmed that the phytosynthesis is primary, which is just the opposite that the animals' decomposition is primary.
⑥According to the essential function of enzymes, found there is a relationship of the unity of opposites between them and ordinary proteins, so then treated them in different ways. According to the commonness of enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins in the biochemical reactions, listed all of them as the functional substances. Then according to the different essence of the functional substances from ordinary organic substances, and their specific properties completely consistent with the microorganisms', related the functional substances to microorganisms.
⑦ By the list of Table 2, found all the substances involved in the biochemical reactions must be chemicalized, and all the substance transformations in the biological world are the results of the biochemical reactions. Confirmed that enzymes, coenzymes and vitamins are part of the necessary substances and special mode that microorganisms take part in the biochemical reactions in different habitats. Then classified respectively the phytosynthesizing and breakdown / restorative enzymes to autotrophic and heterotrophic microorganisms.
Based on the breakthrough in biological enzymes coming from microorganisms and combined with the classification of the "functional components (2)" in the current university textbooks, both of enzymes and vitamins fell to functional substances, so that created a opposite and untied relation between them and ordinary (organic) substances. In addition, also including the re-understanding of in vivo and in vitro and restoration of chloroplasts, they were the keys of all the above key points. It was based on these three keys that led a comprehensive breakthrough in the puzzles of many contradictions. Except the above three key points, all the materials cited in this study were some ready-made conclusions and general knowledge recognized by the current scientific community. It was mainly because of the different analysis and research methods that led the different conclusions.
The features of this study do not lie in experiments, but in its analysis and research methods. By means of the ready-made conclusions on experiments and general knowledge, it is able to overcome the limitations of only relying on experiments, thereupon then to solve what relationships the various substances in the biological cycle should be and how they should have a relationship with plants and animals, and also cause a remedy and adjustment to the relationships among various factors in the biological metabolism and biological cycle of substances. Generally speaking, it has remedied and adjusted the relationships among the three categories of creatures in the biological world – microorganisms, plants and animals, as well as between them and physical substances. As a result, this theoretical exploration has formed a notable difference from the traditional theory, and created a completely new understanding of the theory.
Autotrophic microorganisms are a major biological population in the biosphere, are the very opposite of heterotrophic microorganisms, and even more are the basis of heterotrophic microorganisms. Their importance is by no means less than heterotrophic microorganisms and we have to pay serious attention to them.
These conclusions are not racking our brains to collect facts in order to reinforce the argument, but the theory and the various contradictions in reality make them so. They are the inevitable outcome caused by the theory and those contradictions in reality, and also the subtext implied in the research articles of many scientists for many years. They are indeed many more than we had expected at the beginning and in the process of exploring the various contradictions.
From the above discussions, it is not difficult to find that the current theoretical studies of life sciences have remarkable achievements, but always can not break the shackles of the traditional theory, causing the theoretical research moves forward gradually in one side, while its practice in another side (for example the application of the basic theory in nutriology, medical science and the production of agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry) is still persisting in their old ways, having formed a very contradictory situation that they act wilfully. This contradiction is more and more outstanding, more and more obvious. At the same time it also shows that, at present we are still too little understanding of micro-organisms (it is only a few hundred years that mankind cognized microorganisms, and the found quantity is estimated only 20% of their total), the research direction is not enough clear (such as the classification of the autotrophic and heterotrophic micro-organisms in strategy and the research of their essential functions), the accumulation of power is not enough strong to break the shackles of the traditional theory, and we have yet to carry on a greater impact to the traditional theory with stronger evidence.
As my thinking and understanding in this paper are very young, in addition my ABC is very poor, so hope your experts give directions to me!
First draft: Nov. 28, 2009. Revised: Dec. 31, 2009. Finished: Mar. 17, 2010.
Revised upon the opinions of experts: Apr. 06, 2010.
References:
1, Endosymbiotic theory, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (8 April 2010), available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory.
2, (China) He Sui-Yuan and Jin Yun-Yun, Environment Chemistry（December 1996），P 31/23，available at http://wenku.baidu.com/view/c1598fc24028915f804dc266.html.
3, (China) Drinking water and human health, Sohu Home (31 January 2010), available at http://home.focus.cn/msgview/1713/184979934.html.
4, (China) biological cycle of substances, From Baidupedia (15 January 2008), available at http://baike.baidu.com/view/1364250.htm?fr=ala0_1.
5, (China) Six Main Nutrients, Baidupedia (04 May 2010), available at http://baike.baidu.com/view/782649.htm.
6, (China) Latest Complete Collection, National Food Safety Quality Identification and Test Standard, The Web Site of bbs.foodmate.net (02 May 2007), available at http://bbs.foodmate.net/viewthread.php?tid=115968&extra=&page=1.
Mating System And Parental Care2
Mating system can be defined as the ways in which animals of different kind are associated during copulation and the factors that contribute to identification of partners, interaction and eventually fertilization.
Parental care is the attention that is taken by the parents toward rearing and protecting their offspring until they attain the age of being self reliable and independent. Some animals will extend parental care even if their progenies are able to sustain themselves. These will include man and other primates. Caring of offspring requires time and energy.
Mating systems in animals inculcate different behavioral methods which depend on their natural instincts that include seeing the female genital parts, sniffing and seeing female
genital part and urine.
This is exhibited by almost all animals regardless of the kingdom for example buffaloes would lick the genital parts of the female and would smell the urine of the female frequently to detect when she is on heat, it is known that herbivores are poor in sniffing. It is the functions of male bull to detect when the female is on heat. But another issue is raised whereby the male can attract the female that is on heat by vocalization of sound and bellowing.
This is a competitive feature in hoofed animals where the vocalization sound of bulls determines and reflects on the strongest male and robust enough to mate and sire strong calves. Beside vocalization and production of sound, many animals would extend their necks and curl upper lip. This is exhibited by male animals when they feel that they would like to mate and no female is ready. This is eventually done to attract any female that is willing to be mated or if any that is on heat.
Sometimes tactile stimuli are noticed in males as licking and biting of the female takes place. Bulls get the sexual desire quickly as soon as the female is on heat and arousal follows no sooner. With time the mating bull would become sexually exhausted as mating continues. When mating the bull don't concentrate on grazing and this is a factor that makes man to encourage domesticated animals to be isolated, and mating would be allowed at night or early in the morning before grazing resumes.
Erection in bulls of cattle, buffaloes, wild beast, waterbucks, giraffes, rams and he goat is fast and ejaculation is fast on mounting. But elephant bulls, rhinoceros, donkey, camels, zebras, and others have difficulty in mating due to the size of body mass and weight as well as the size of the male genital organ, height of female and calmness of female when mating.
From the observation of a video on mating of animals, mating in elephants take long since the male bull would take time to locate and insert the penis. Then it has to remain mounted till it ejaculates. The same case applies to rhinoceros. In donkey, mating is tedious due to aggressiveness of male and the female don't accept to stand still for the mating to occur. Biting of male to female's neck and strong fight between them eventually makes the female to oblige. There is a problem when the male donkey tries to insert or to penetrate the female due to the size of the male's penis and the failure of it being stiff even on full erection.
When it comes to camels, mating would take time since the female must lie normally as if it is resting. It remains the work of the male camel to locate the vulva and penetrate while she is lying. This gives the male hand time to mate. Sometimes a human assistance is required to facilitate successive mating in camels since the male is long too to squat or to bend properly. The man would assist in holding the bull's penis and insert it in female's vulva and bull would start mating and hence ejaculate after a while. Camels' males have low libido as compared to other domesticated animals apart from horses. Horses would require sexual activation by man since mating occurs after a long period of time since females don't become on heat quickly.
Some animals would mate due to sexual interaction, sense of touch, seeing partners and getting attracted to them and lastly addiction. This is usually done by primates where the female genitals organ would swell to attract the male. The genital parts of primates e.g. baboon would change color and vulva would swell to attract the male. Males chimpanzee mate frequently almost like human being. It happens that after getting relaxed a certain group of these creatures would just start mating. They are really addicted to sex. Other males are isolated from females and would go to females when they would mate. Certain sounds would be produced by females on heat to attract the male and this happens to females that do not produce pheromone hormone. Or the male produces certain sound to attract the female on heat.
Mating systems in animals differ according to the natural complexity, height, weight and size of the specific animal.
One method of mating system is whereby a male has an exclusive relationship with two or more females. This is mostly exhibited by a number of primates where the king of the jungle would mate several females, each at time when they are on estrus. The male baboon that is strong enough and can fight all other males in that group is always the king who usually would mate the females on heat during his rein and would bring forth a number of generations before it become sexually exhausted and weak to mate any more. This is a specific system in polygamous animals that is polygynic. Polygyny is the most mating system in animals that is so far well analyzed and proved and tested. It usually occurs in a number of animals for example in lions, baboon etc.
Another mating system in animal kingdom involves polyandry where one female has a relationship with two or more males. This is exhibited by wild dogs and hyenas. According to the journal by S.K. Pal (2005) "free ranging dogs" In the journal of applied animal behavior Science
Volume 90, Issue 1, January 2005, Pages 31-47
In this journal, parental care in free-ranging dogs was investigated in Katwa town, India. Out of six lactating bitches, 4 were monogamous. The gestation period varied from 62 to 65 days. In this study, the favor of male was recorded. It was found that high mortality (63%) of pups occurred by the age of 3 months and their mothers were in contact with the litters for 13 weeks of the litters' life. It was observed that there was a negative correlation between the duration of mother–litter contact in any observation session and the age of the pups. Feeding of the young ones by the mothers by suckling was continued for 10–11 weeks of the litters' life. The duration of milk feeding in any 30-min observation session reached a maximum of 27.54 min during the 1st week and a minimum of 2.22 min during the 11th week of the litters' life. It was found that all the mothers in this study were observed to feed the pups by regurgitation. For the first 2 weeks immediately after parturition, the lactating females were observed to be more aggressive to protect the pups. The four males that were kept in touch with the puppies were in contact with the litters as their protector dogs for the first 6–8 weeks of litters' life. In absence of the mothers, they were observed to prevent the approach of strangers by bowing and vocalizations or even by physical attacks which included chasing the strangers. Moreover, from the abstract, one male was found feeding the litter by regurgitation. This was unbelievable, showing the existence of paternal care in free-roaming domestic dogs.
Sometimes it is very hard to identify and to distinguish mating systems in world animals like elephants. But continuous study indicates that a polygynandry system of mating is exhibited where two or more males have almost exclusive relationship with two or more females. The mating elephants tend to start dating before mating. In the process when the female become on heat the male is likely to mate her and not any other male. Elephants tend to show age mate when mating. A young male bull cannot mate an old elephant female. The numbers of males and females in this system of mating is not necessarily equal, and in vertebrate species studied so far, the number of males is usually less.
In parental care elephants would ensure enough security that requires cooperation of all elephants in that social colony. Elephants would surround the female on birth and would not move until when the calf is able to do the walking. The mother would protect the calf from predators such as lions and tigers. Most animals reveal a promiscuous behavior where any male within the social group mates with any female. This is exhibited by herbivores, but a slight fight would erupt between competing males and mating would proceed but stronger males would have an upper hand.
Recent developments in courtship indicate that mating in animals depends on the seasons of mating that are influenced by many factors. These factors include genetic make up of animals, environment and availability of partners. Many animals depend on sensing ability of the male and from how far it can sense the pheromone hormone that is produced by females. Some animals like dogs can sense from far when the bitch is on heat. Mating actually involves many males but the strongest would be able to mate after a fight in polygynandly relationship. Dogs are good in sniffing.
Some omnivorous such as zebras would mate when the female is on heat. Mating causes a fight between mating males. The strongest male who fights the others would mate successfully after overcoming the female by biting her at the back of the neck. There also erupts a fight between the male and female on heat. After the birth, the male confirms that the offspring born is his. If the offspring is not his, the ass ensures that the offspring born does not survive by killing the newborn if it senses that it is not his. There erupts a fight between female zebra and the male as the female tries to protect the newborn. Most of these animals don't engage in rearing the young ones after weaning unlike their counterparts in cat family who hunt for young ones. Mating systems differ greatly between domesticated, wild animals, man and invertebrates.
Mating in animals occur through out their life but with a certain direct control mechanism caused by either male or female and nature. Cat family animals have mating behavior that involves use of males to seduce females. Fighting in male cheetahs for example makes the female to become on heat after some time. After conceiving and giving birth, the female usually takes care of the young ones by suckling, hunting for preys and protection Protections involves hiding cubs in a safe place from enemies. The female will carry disabled cubs to a safer place by holding it at the back of neck using its mouth; most animals of cat family will do this to their offspring.
Parental care in cat family will also include killing of other competitors e.g. lion would try as much to kill young ones of other cats and even hyenas cubs to reduce competion since all are carnivorous and compete for herbivores together. All carnivores depend on meat from herbivores. Males in this family will only protect the pride when there is extreme enemy or danger. The female is always active but the male is not. A great discrimination and selectivity is exhibited by females during copulation. Many females in cat family would allow strong and robust males to mate them but the weak males are sidelined. This enhances continuation of genetically strong generation. In this factor, the survival of the fittest is established. A lion sometimes would seduce the lioness if he realizes that she has stayed for long without showing symptoms of heat after last birth, this happens to many animals of cat family.
Leopards which are not swift like cheetahs would protect the young ones by hiding them in cafes. When they grow up she trains the cubs to climb trees. When she hunts she would let the cubs to eat the fresh and she usually hides the remains on top of trees where no other fresh eating animal can get unless vultures. The leopard would mostly hide the meat from the predators like hyenas. Leopards are lucky that they hide on trees where most enemies cannot climb the trees. Most cat family animals are very jealous such that when they have poor mothering ability, they tend to destroy other animals family. For example a leopard would eat their counterparts young ones or when her young one dies she just consume it. This is a queer behavior that is associated with almost all carnivorous.
Copulation among wild animals usually mostly occurs when animals are safe from enemies, when environment is conducive and when females are on heat, unlike man. Mating in herbivores is highly determined by estrus cycle in females. The presence of pheromone hormone in the female's urine would make the male to be sexually active and to start mating. Usually detection of this hormone occurs during normal gracing periods whereby the males would accidentally sense the hormone or when licking the genitals of female.
Mating in gazelles usually occurs during the day when their predators cannot attack them and involves strong males that fight other males during copulation. The stronger male would succeed to the female. Jealousy is highly exhibited by strongest male whereby he cannot allow other males to mate the female on heat. After birth the mother would protect the lamb against some hawks that attack small life lambs, vultures, cheetahs, hyena, leopards and other possible predators. It is possible that some animals would come on heat after mating, especially when mating was not intended e.g. hares would mate and the sperms would induce the female to be ready to conceive not necessarily when mating.
This happens because female hares have got that capability of storing sperms for a while after mating. Hot weather does not favor mating of animals since most are exhausted. Animals like giraffe would kick its calf after birth to alert it on danger ahead. Parental care would involve protecting the calf against lion and hyena and other possible predators.
When it comes to human, sexual behavior is unusually flexible and it is not influenced by hormonal changes in females since their estrus cycle is usually hidden. In most animal species, one mating system dominates according to the estrus cycle. There is close analogy between animal mating systems and human marriage behaviors that is exhibited by birds. This is so because in human societies, marriages typically have to be recognized by the entire society in some way, and there is no equivalent process in animal societies. The temptation to draw conclusions about what is normal for human sexual behavior from observations of animal mating systems should be resisted: a zoologist observing the kinds of behaviors shown by humans in any other species would conclude that all known mating systems were natural for that species, depending on the prevailing circumstances or on individual animal differences.
In amphibians, mating highly occur when there is plenty of water i.e. during rainy season. Males' frog would fawn to attract females and communication is done through hearing of specific sounds.
Animals would continue giving birth until they become sexually inactive. The number of offspring brought forward depends on the types of animals, gestation period, easiness in mating, weather condition i.e. too hot weather does not favor mating seasons, lastly availability food, water and of course mating partners would greatly affect the reproduction among animals.
All the above is controlled by nature and competition among predators and preys. Less advantaged animals, mostly herbivores have short gestation period that can enhance them to give birth frequently, in order to replace those young ones that don't survive due to hunger, predation by enemies or due to disease and other natural calamities. Gestation periods for elephants take long due to genetically make up and that chance of survival for the calves are high since elephants don't have many enemies.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, mating systems and parental care are adaptations to wild life. Mating systems in animals differ greatly and this difference is brought by the body structures and conformation of these animals plus the body mass, weight, height of specific animals, flexibility which is determined by weight and body mass, genetically makeup, environments and the fitness of the animal.
Animals with high chances of survival have long gestation periods since their young ones can survive. Those animals that have many enemies have short gestation period such that they can give birth to many young ones so that even if others don't survive some would to facilitate survival of the species.
It is apparent that herbivores are born and after some time they can run very fast to escape any predator around. This is because herbivores have many enemies which include almost all carnivores and some omnivorous. Parental care and mating systems go hand in hand. According to the journal by Daniel P. Mitchell,(2007)"Attractive male dogs and parental care" In the journal of animal behavior, volume73, issue 1, pages 165 to 170 )The information extracted from the sciencedirect base, concerning attractive male dogs and parental care, it is well indicated that attractive, huge and robust males may be signals of direct or indirect benefits to females that mate with those males. Apparently there is one important direct benefit to females and this is the level of male parental assistance they receive when provisioning young. Three main hypotheses stated attempted to explain the relationship between attractive male size and parental care. The good parent hypothesis predicted that males with larger prevalence would provide more care, while the differential allocation and trade-off hypotheses predicted that they would provide less care. In every hypothesis there must be type one error and type two error if good analysis is not done. There was examination of the relationship between male attractiveness and parental care in two populations of common yellowthroats, Geothlypis trichas, in which the sexually selected male attractiveness differed. It was found that more attractive males provided less parental care in both populations, contrary to the good parent hypothesis. However, females did not feed their nestlings more frequently when mated with more ornamented males; this is an additional prediction of the differential allocation hypothesis. The results were based on the consistency with the trade-off hypothesis, which suggested that more attractive males provide less care because they spent relatively more of their effort in pursuing new mates or defending their territories from other males
References:
Animal Behavior (2005) Parental care and animal behavior, retrieved on 11th August
Animal behavior (2005) animal reproduction and behavior, retrieved on 11th August
Animal behavior (2005) Evolution and parental care, retrieved on 11th August
Evolution (2006) evolution and parental care, retrieved on 11th August
Marlowe F. (2003) The Mating System of Foragers in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample, McGraw hill, New Jersey
Rael P. (2002) Researching on animal mating systems, prentice hall, New York
Patrick R. (2004) a history book on animals evolution, Publisher Prentice, New York
Reliable sources (2005) Parental care and animal behavior, retrieved on 11th August
Science daily (2005) animal behavior and parental care, retrieved on 11th August
Sherlock and John Moray (2007) a book on animals husbandry, Cambridge Publisher, Cambridge
Wikibook (2006) Animals behavior, retrieved on 11th August
Parental care is the attention that is taken by the parents toward rearing and protecting their offspring until they attain the age of being self reliable and independent. Some animals will extend parental care even if their progenies are able to sustain themselves. These will include man and other primates. Caring of offspring requires time and energy.
Mating systems in animals inculcate different behavioral methods which depend on their natural instincts that include seeing the female genital parts, sniffing and seeing female
genital part and urine.
This is exhibited by almost all animals regardless of the kingdom for example buffaloes would lick the genital parts of the female and would smell the urine of the female frequently to detect when she is on heat, it is known that herbivores are poor in sniffing. It is the functions of male bull to detect when the female is on heat. But another issue is raised whereby the male can attract the female that is on heat by vocalization of sound and bellowing.
This is a competitive feature in hoofed animals where the vocalization sound of bulls determines and reflects on the strongest male and robust enough to mate and sire strong calves. Beside vocalization and production of sound, many animals would extend their necks and curl upper lip. This is exhibited by male animals when they feel that they would like to mate and no female is ready. This is eventually done to attract any female that is willing to be mated or if any that is on heat.
Sometimes tactile stimuli are noticed in males as licking and biting of the female takes place. Bulls get the sexual desire quickly as soon as the female is on heat and arousal follows no sooner. With time the mating bull would become sexually exhausted as mating continues. When mating the bull don't concentrate on grazing and this is a factor that makes man to encourage domesticated animals to be isolated, and mating would be allowed at night or early in the morning before grazing resumes.
Erection in bulls of cattle, buffaloes, wild beast, waterbucks, giraffes, rams and he goat is fast and ejaculation is fast on mounting. But elephant bulls, rhinoceros, donkey, camels, zebras, and others have difficulty in mating due to the size of body mass and weight as well as the size of the male genital organ, height of female and calmness of female when mating.
From the observation of a video on mating of animals, mating in elephants take long since the male bull would take time to locate and insert the penis. Then it has to remain mounted till it ejaculates. The same case applies to rhinoceros. In donkey, mating is tedious due to aggressiveness of male and the female don't accept to stand still for the mating to occur. Biting of male to female's neck and strong fight between them eventually makes the female to oblige. There is a problem when the male donkey tries to insert or to penetrate the female due to the size of the male's penis and the failure of it being stiff even on full erection.
When it comes to camels, mating would take time since the female must lie normally as if it is resting. It remains the work of the male camel to locate the vulva and penetrate while she is lying. This gives the male hand time to mate. Sometimes a human assistance is required to facilitate successive mating in camels since the male is long too to squat or to bend properly. The man would assist in holding the bull's penis and insert it in female's vulva and bull would start mating and hence ejaculate after a while. Camels' males have low libido as compared to other domesticated animals apart from horses. Horses would require sexual activation by man since mating occurs after a long period of time since females don't become on heat quickly.
Some animals would mate due to sexual interaction, sense of touch, seeing partners and getting attracted to them and lastly addiction. This is usually done by primates where the female genitals organ would swell to attract the male. The genital parts of primates e.g. baboon would change color and vulva would swell to attract the male. Males chimpanzee mate frequently almost like human being. It happens that after getting relaxed a certain group of these creatures would just start mating. They are really addicted to sex. Other males are isolated from females and would go to females when they would mate. Certain sounds would be produced by females on heat to attract the male and this happens to females that do not produce pheromone hormone. Or the male produces certain sound to attract the female on heat.
Mating systems in animals differ according to the natural complexity, height, weight and size of the specific animal.
One method of mating system is whereby a male has an exclusive relationship with two or more females. This is mostly exhibited by a number of primates where the king of the jungle would mate several females, each at time when they are on estrus. The male baboon that is strong enough and can fight all other males in that group is always the king who usually would mate the females on heat during his rein and would bring forth a number of generations before it become sexually exhausted and weak to mate any more. This is a specific system in polygamous animals that is polygynic. Polygyny is the most mating system in animals that is so far well analyzed and proved and tested. It usually occurs in a number of animals for example in lions, baboon etc.
Another mating system in animal kingdom involves polyandry where one female has a relationship with two or more males. This is exhibited by wild dogs and hyenas. According to the journal by S.K. Pal (2005) "free ranging dogs" In the journal of applied animal behavior Science
Volume 90, Issue 1, January 2005, Pages 31-47
In this journal, parental care in free-ranging dogs was investigated in Katwa town, India. Out of six lactating bitches, 4 were monogamous. The gestation period varied from 62 to 65 days. In this study, the favor of male was recorded. It was found that high mortality (63%) of pups occurred by the age of 3 months and their mothers were in contact with the litters for 13 weeks of the litters' life. It was observed that there was a negative correlation between the duration of mother–litter contact in any observation session and the age of the pups. Feeding of the young ones by the mothers by suckling was continued for 10–11 weeks of the litters' life. The duration of milk feeding in any 30-min observation session reached a maximum of 27.54 min during the 1st week and a minimum of 2.22 min during the 11th week of the litters' life. It was found that all the mothers in this study were observed to feed the pups by regurgitation. For the first 2 weeks immediately after parturition, the lactating females were observed to be more aggressive to protect the pups. The four males that were kept in touch with the puppies were in contact with the litters as their protector dogs for the first 6–8 weeks of litters' life. In absence of the mothers, they were observed to prevent the approach of strangers by bowing and vocalizations or even by physical attacks which included chasing the strangers. Moreover, from the abstract, one male was found feeding the litter by regurgitation. This was unbelievable, showing the existence of paternal care in free-roaming domestic dogs.
Sometimes it is very hard to identify and to distinguish mating systems in world animals like elephants. But continuous study indicates that a polygynandry system of mating is exhibited where two or more males have almost exclusive relationship with two or more females. The mating elephants tend to start dating before mating. In the process when the female become on heat the male is likely to mate her and not any other male. Elephants tend to show age mate when mating. A young male bull cannot mate an old elephant female. The numbers of males and females in this system of mating is not necessarily equal, and in vertebrate species studied so far, the number of males is usually less.
In parental care elephants would ensure enough security that requires cooperation of all elephants in that social colony. Elephants would surround the female on birth and would not move until when the calf is able to do the walking. The mother would protect the calf from predators such as lions and tigers. Most animals reveal a promiscuous behavior where any male within the social group mates with any female. This is exhibited by herbivores, but a slight fight would erupt between competing males and mating would proceed but stronger males would have an upper hand.
Recent developments in courtship indicate that mating in animals depends on the seasons of mating that are influenced by many factors. These factors include genetic make up of animals, environment and availability of partners. Many animals depend on sensing ability of the male and from how far it can sense the pheromone hormone that is produced by females. Some animals like dogs can sense from far when the bitch is on heat. Mating actually involves many males but the strongest would be able to mate after a fight in polygynandly relationship. Dogs are good in sniffing.
Some omnivorous such as zebras would mate when the female is on heat. Mating causes a fight between mating males. The strongest male who fights the others would mate successfully after overcoming the female by biting her at the back of the neck. There also erupts a fight between the male and female on heat. After the birth, the male confirms that the offspring born is his. If the offspring is not his, the ass ensures that the offspring born does not survive by killing the newborn if it senses that it is not his. There erupts a fight between female zebra and the male as the female tries to protect the newborn. Most of these animals don't engage in rearing the young ones after weaning unlike their counterparts in cat family who hunt for young ones. Mating systems differ greatly between domesticated, wild animals, man and invertebrates.
Mating in animals occur through out their life but with a certain direct control mechanism caused by either male or female and nature. Cat family animals have mating behavior that involves use of males to seduce females. Fighting in male cheetahs for example makes the female to become on heat after some time. After conceiving and giving birth, the female usually takes care of the young ones by suckling, hunting for preys and protection Protections involves hiding cubs in a safe place from enemies. The female will carry disabled cubs to a safer place by holding it at the back of neck using its mouth; most animals of cat family will do this to their offspring.
Parental care in cat family will also include killing of other competitors e.g. lion would try as much to kill young ones of other cats and even hyenas cubs to reduce competion since all are carnivorous and compete for herbivores together. All carnivores depend on meat from herbivores. Males in this family will only protect the pride when there is extreme enemy or danger. The female is always active but the male is not. A great discrimination and selectivity is exhibited by females during copulation. Many females in cat family would allow strong and robust males to mate them but the weak males are sidelined. This enhances continuation of genetically strong generation. In this factor, the survival of the fittest is established. A lion sometimes would seduce the lioness if he realizes that she has stayed for long without showing symptoms of heat after last birth, this happens to many animals of cat family.
Leopards which are not swift like cheetahs would protect the young ones by hiding them in cafes. When they grow up she trains the cubs to climb trees. When she hunts she would let the cubs to eat the fresh and she usually hides the remains on top of trees where no other fresh eating animal can get unless vultures. The leopard would mostly hide the meat from the predators like hyenas. Leopards are lucky that they hide on trees where most enemies cannot climb the trees. Most cat family animals are very jealous such that when they have poor mothering ability, they tend to destroy other animals family. For example a leopard would eat their counterparts young ones or when her young one dies she just consume it. This is a queer behavior that is associated with almost all carnivorous.
Copulation among wild animals usually mostly occurs when animals are safe from enemies, when environment is conducive and when females are on heat, unlike man. Mating in herbivores is highly determined by estrus cycle in females. The presence of pheromone hormone in the female's urine would make the male to be sexually active and to start mating. Usually detection of this hormone occurs during normal gracing periods whereby the males would accidentally sense the hormone or when licking the genitals of female.
Mating in gazelles usually occurs during the day when their predators cannot attack them and involves strong males that fight other males during copulation. The stronger male would succeed to the female. Jealousy is highly exhibited by strongest male whereby he cannot allow other males to mate the female on heat. After birth the mother would protect the lamb against some hawks that attack small life lambs, vultures, cheetahs, hyena, leopards and other possible predators. It is possible that some animals would come on heat after mating, especially when mating was not intended e.g. hares would mate and the sperms would induce the female to be ready to conceive not necessarily when mating.
This happens because female hares have got that capability of storing sperms for a while after mating. Hot weather does not favor mating of animals since most are exhausted. Animals like giraffe would kick its calf after birth to alert it on danger ahead. Parental care would involve protecting the calf against lion and hyena and other possible predators.
When it comes to human, sexual behavior is unusually flexible and it is not influenced by hormonal changes in females since their estrus cycle is usually hidden. In most animal species, one mating system dominates according to the estrus cycle. There is close analogy between animal mating systems and human marriage behaviors that is exhibited by birds. This is so because in human societies, marriages typically have to be recognized by the entire society in some way, and there is no equivalent process in animal societies. The temptation to draw conclusions about what is normal for human sexual behavior from observations of animal mating systems should be resisted: a zoologist observing the kinds of behaviors shown by humans in any other species would conclude that all known mating systems were natural for that species, depending on the prevailing circumstances or on individual animal differences.
In amphibians, mating highly occur when there is plenty of water i.e. during rainy season. Males' frog would fawn to attract females and communication is done through hearing of specific sounds.
Animals would continue giving birth until they become sexually inactive. The number of offspring brought forward depends on the types of animals, gestation period, easiness in mating, weather condition i.e. too hot weather does not favor mating seasons, lastly availability food, water and of course mating partners would greatly affect the reproduction among animals.
All the above is controlled by nature and competition among predators and preys. Less advantaged animals, mostly herbivores have short gestation period that can enhance them to give birth frequently, in order to replace those young ones that don't survive due to hunger, predation by enemies or due to disease and other natural calamities. Gestation periods for elephants take long due to genetically make up and that chance of survival for the calves are high since elephants don't have many enemies.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, mating systems and parental care are adaptations to wild life. Mating systems in animals differ greatly and this difference is brought by the body structures and conformation of these animals plus the body mass, weight, height of specific animals, flexibility which is determined by weight and body mass, genetically makeup, environments and the fitness of the animal.
Animals with high chances of survival have long gestation periods since their young ones can survive. Those animals that have many enemies have short gestation period such that they can give birth to many young ones so that even if others don't survive some would to facilitate survival of the species.
It is apparent that herbivores are born and after some time they can run very fast to escape any predator around. This is because herbivores have many enemies which include almost all carnivores and some omnivorous. Parental care and mating systems go hand in hand. According to the journal by Daniel P. Mitchell,(2007)"Attractive male dogs and parental care" In the journal of animal behavior, volume73, issue 1, pages 165 to 170 )The information extracted from the sciencedirect base, concerning attractive male dogs and parental care, it is well indicated that attractive, huge and robust males may be signals of direct or indirect benefits to females that mate with those males. Apparently there is one important direct benefit to females and this is the level of male parental assistance they receive when provisioning young. Three main hypotheses stated attempted to explain the relationship between attractive male size and parental care. The good parent hypothesis predicted that males with larger prevalence would provide more care, while the differential allocation and trade-off hypotheses predicted that they would provide less care. In every hypothesis there must be type one error and type two error if good analysis is not done. There was examination of the relationship between male attractiveness and parental care in two populations of common yellowthroats, Geothlypis trichas, in which the sexually selected male attractiveness differed. It was found that more attractive males provided less parental care in both populations, contrary to the good parent hypothesis. However, females did not feed their nestlings more frequently when mated with more ornamented males; this is an additional prediction of the differential allocation hypothesis. The results were based on the consistency with the trade-off hypothesis, which suggested that more attractive males provide less care because they spent relatively more of their effort in pursuing new mates or defending their territories from other males
References:
Animal Behavior (2005) Parental care and animal behavior, retrieved on 11th August
Animal behavior (2005) animal reproduction and behavior, retrieved on 11th August
Animal behavior (2005) Evolution and parental care, retrieved on 11th August
Evolution (2006) evolution and parental care, retrieved on 11th August
Marlowe F. (2003) The Mating System of Foragers in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample, McGraw hill, New Jersey
Rael P. (2002) Researching on animal mating systems, prentice hall, New York
Patrick R. (2004) a history book on animals evolution, Publisher Prentice, New York
Reliable sources (2005) Parental care and animal behavior, retrieved on 11th August
Science daily (2005) animal behavior and parental care, retrieved on 11th August
Sherlock and John Moray (2007) a book on animals husbandry, Cambridge Publisher, Cambridge
Wikibook (2006) Animals behavior, retrieved on 11th August
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